civil service exam

EnglishpublicspeakinganddebatingThecivilserviceexamofChinaspeakershiluluIndex•Briefintroductionofcivilservant•Historyofcivilservant•PresentcivilservantexamofChinaBriefintroductionofcivilservant•Acivilservantorpublicservantisapersoninthepublicsectoremployedbyagovernmentdepartmentoragency.•Thetermexplicitlyexcludesthearmedservices,althoughcivilianofficialscanworkatDefenseMinistryheadquarters.•TheextentofcivilservantsofastateaspartoftheCivilServicevariesfromcountrytocountry.•Inourcountry,accordingtothepublicservantlaw,thedefinitionofpublicservantisthepersonnelwhoperformdutybasedonlaw,belongstothenationaladministrativesystemandpaidbythenationalfinance.•Andalsoincludethejustice法官,prosecutor检察官,politicalconsultativeconferencestaff政协工作人员andothernon-stateadministrativeorgans’publicservantHistoryofcivilservant•Earlyhistorybasedoninheritanceorpatronage继承或赞助•datedfromtheRomanEmpire•Modernmeritocraticcivilservicebasedonmerit•FounderimperialChina•BorrowerandspreaderEuropeancountriesEarlyhistory•Thisdevelopedacomplexadministrativestructure,whichisoutlinedintheNotitiaDignitatum罗马帝国官方史andtheworkofJohnLydus,butasfarasweknowappointmentstoitweremadeentirelybyinheritanceorpatronageandnotonmerit,anditwasalsopossibleforofficerstoemployotherpeopletocarryouttheirofficialtasksbutcontinuetodrawtheirsalarythemselves.•Thereareobviousparallelsherewiththeearlybureaucraticstructuresinmodernstates,suchastheOfficeofWorksortheNavyin18thcenturyEngland,whereagainappointmentsdependedonpatronageandwereoftenboughtandsold.TheRomancivilserviceinaction.MaryandJosephofNazarethregisterforthecensusbeforeGovernorQuirinius,mosaic1315–20.•TheImperialexambasedonmeritwasdesignedtoselectthebestadministrativeofficialsforthestate'sbureaucracy.•ThissystemhadahugeinfluenceonbothsocietyandcultureinImperialChinaandwasdirectlyresponsibleforthecreationofaclassofscholar-bureaucrats士大夫irrespectiveoftheirfamilypedigree家谱.•TheChinesecivil-servicesystemgavetheChineseempirestabilityformorethan2,000yearsandprovidedoneofthemajoroutletsforsocialmobilityinChinesesociety.ModernmeritocraticcivilserviceFounderimperialChina•FromthetimeoftheHanDynasty(206BCtoAD220)untiltheimplementationoftheimperialexaminationsystem,mostappointmentsintheimperialbureaucracywerebasedonrecommendationsfromprominentaristocratsandlocalofficialswhilstrecommendedindividualswerepredominantlyofaristocraticrank.EmperorWuofHanstartedanearlyformoftheimperialexaminations,transitioningfrominheritanceandpatronagetomerit,inwhichlocalofficialswouldselectcandidatestotakepartinanexaminationoftheConfucianclassics.ThesystemreacheditsapogeeduringtheSongdynasty.•OneoftheoldestexamplesofacivilservicebasedonmeritocracyistheImperialbureaucracyofChina,whichcanbetracedasfarbackastheQinDynasty(221–207BC).DuringtheHanDynasty(202BC–220AD)thexiaoliansystemofrecommendationbysuperiorsforappointmentstoofficewasestablished.Intheareasofadministration,especiallythemilitary,appointmentswerebasedsolelyonmerit.•AfterthefalloftheHanDynasty,theChinesebureaucracyregressedintoasemi-meritsystemknownastheNine-ranksystem;inthissystemnoblebirthrightbecamethemostsignificantprerequisite先决条件forgainingaccesstomoreauthoritativeposts.•Thissystemwasreversedduringtheshort-livedSuiDynasty(581–618),whichinitiatedacivilservicebureaucracyrecruitedthroughwrittenexaminationsandrecommendation.ThefollowingTangDynasty(618–907)adoptedthesamemeasuresfordraftingofficials,anddecreasinglyreliedonaristocraticrecommendationsandmoreandmoreonpromotionbasedontheresultsofwrittenexaminations.•However,thecivilserviceexaminationswerepracticedonamuchsmallerscaleincomparisontothestronger,centralizedbureaucracyoftheSongDynasty(960–1279).InresponsetotheregionalmilitaryruleofjiedushiandthelossofcivilauthorityduringthelateTangperiodandFiveDynasties(907–960),theSongemperorswereeagertoimplementasystemwherecivilofficialswouldowetheirsocialprestigetothecentralcourtandgaintheirsalariesstrictlyfromthecentralgovernment.ThisidealwasnotfullyachievedsincemanyscholarofficialswereaffluentlandownersandwereengagedinmanyanonymousbusinessaffairsinanageofeconomicrevolutioninChina.Nonetheless,gainingadegreethroughthreelevelsofexamination—prefecturalexams,provincialexams,andtheprestigiouspalaceexams—wasafarmoredesirablegoalinsocietythanbecomingamerchant.Thiswasbecausethemercantileclasswastraditionallyregardedwithsomedisdainbythescholarofficialclass.ThisclassofstatebureaucratsintheSongperiodwerefarlessaristocraticthantheirTangpredecessors.Theexaminationswerecarefullystructuredinordertoensurethatpeopleoflessermeansthanwhatwasavailabletocandidatesbornintowealthy,landowningfamiliesweregivenagreaterchancetopasstheexamsandobtainanofficialdegree.Thisincludedtheemploymentofabureauofcopyistswhowouldrewriteallofthecandidates'examsinordertomasktheirhandwritingandthuspreventfavoritismbygradersoftheexamswhomightotherwiserecognizeacandidate'shandwriting.TheadventofwidespreadprintingintheSongperiodallowedmanymoreexaminationcandidatesaccesstotheConfuciantextswhosemasterywasrequiredforpassingtheexams.Chinesecivilserv