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Volume7,Issue1,April2010THEINTELLECTUALPROPERTYIMPLICATIONSOFLOW-COST3DPRINTINGSimonBradshaw,*AdrianBowyer°andPatrickHaufe†AbstractInthelate1970s3Dprintingstartedtobecomeestablishedasamanufacturingtechnology.Thirtyyearsonthecostof3Dprintingmachinesisfallingtothepointwhereprivateindividualsinthedevelopedworldmayeasilyownthem.TheyallowanyonetoprintcomplicatedengineeringpartsentirelyautomaticallyfromdesignfilesthatitisstraightforwardtoshareovertheInternet.However,althoughthewidespreaduseof3Dprintersmaywellhavebotheconomicandenvironmentaladvantagesoverconventionalmethodsofmanufacturinganddistributinggoods,theremaybeconcernsthatsuchusecouldbeconstrainedbytheoperationofintellectualproperty(IP)law.ThispaperexaminesexistingIPlegislationandcaselawinthecontextsofthepossiblewidetake-upofthistechnologybybothsmallfirmsandprivateindividuals.Itsplitsthisexaminationintofiveareas:copyright,designprotection,patents,trademarks,andpassingoff.Reassuringly,andperhapssurprisingly,itisconcludedthat–withintheUKatleast-private3DprinterownersmakingitemsforpersonaluseandnotforgainareexemptfromthevastmajorityofIPconstraints,andthatcommercialusers,thoughmorerestricted,arelesssothanmightbeimagined.DOI:10.2966/scrip.070110.5©SimonBradshaw,AdrianBowyerandPatrickHaufe2010.ThisworkislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsLicence.Pleaseclickonthelinktoreadthetermsandconditions.*CentreforCommercialLawStudies,QueenMary,UniversityofLondon.°MechanicalEngineeringDepartment,BathUniversity,Bath.†Faculty5,DepartmentofBiomimetics/BiologicalMaterials,HochschuleBremen,UniversityofAppliedScience,Bremen,Germany.(2010)7:1SCRIPTed61.IntroductionThroughoutrecordedhistorymostpeoplewhohavewantedahouseholdarticlehaveboughtorbartereditfromsomeoneelse–inpasttimesanartisanortrader,morerecentlyasellerofmass-producedproducts.Withfewexceptions(suchassomeclothing)itisrarethatanyofusmakesucharticlesforourselvesthesedays.Thatmaysoonchange.Thirtyyearsagoonlydedicatedenthusiastswouldprinttheirownphotographsoreditandreproducetheirownnewsletters.Theadventofthehomecomputer,andinparticularoflow-costhigh-qualityprinters,hasnowmadesuchthingssimpleandcommonplace.Recentdevelopmentsinproducingaffordableandhobbyist-friendlyprintersthatcanreproducethree-dimensionalratherthanjustflatobjectsmaymeanthatprintingatoast-rackoracombbecomesaseasyasprintingabirthdaycard.Anylawyerfamiliarwithcopyrightandtrademarklawcansee,however,thatprintingone’sownbirthdaycardscould,dependingonthesourceandnatureoftheimagesused,infringeanumberofintellectualproperty(IP)rights.Temptingasitmaybetocopyanduseapictureofawell-knowncartooncharacter,theresultingcardswouldverylikelybeaninfringementofthecopyrightandperhapstrademarksownedbytherelevantrightsholder.Butwhatifsomeoneusesaprintercapableofproducingamobilephonecoverbearingsuchanimage?Orreproducingadistinctively-styledpieceofkitchenware?Whataboutprintingoutasparewing-mirrormountforyourcar?DotheseusesinfringeIPrights?Inthefirstpartofthispaper,wereviewthehistoryof3Dprintinganddescriberecentdevelopments,includingaprojectinitiatedbyoneoftheauthorstobringsuchprintersintothehome.WethenexaminetheIPimplicationsofpersonal3Dprintingwithparticularreferencetothebundleofrightsthatwouldtypicallybeassociatedwithaproductthatmightbecopied.2.Personal3DPrinting:TheTechnicalAspectsofHomeManufacturing2.1.ABriefHistoryofManufacturingPeoplehavethreewaystomakesolidobjects:1.Cuttingshapesoutofablockofmaterial;2.Addingmaterialpiecemealtobuildupshapes;and3.Formingmaterialthatisliquidorplasticintotherequiredshapesthatthenset.Allformingprocessesaresecondaryinthesensethatthediesandmouldsforthemmustinitiallybecutorbuiltbyoneoftheothertwoprimaryprocesses.Pre-industrialexamplesofthesethreearecarvingwood,bricklaying,andmouldingajelly.Sincetheindustrialrevolution,anenormousnumberofvariationsonthesethreetechniqueshavebeendevelopedandpre-industrialtechniqueshavebeenmuchrefined.Cuttingandforminghave,inparticular,receivedagreatdealofattention,resultinginsophisticatedlathesandmillingmachinesforcutting,andinjection-mouldinganddie-castingmachinesforforming.(2010)7:1SCRIPTed7JustaftertheSecondWorldWar,JohnParsonsinventedtheideaofnumericalcontrol.1Inthis,amanufacturingmachinehasallitsparametersandvariablescontinuallycontrolledbyacomputer,allowingapreviouslyhand-controlledprocesstobecompletelyautomated.Atypicalnumerically-controlledmachinetoolisalatheoramillthatcanproduceacomplicated-shapedpartfromasimpleblockentirelywithouthumanintervention.ThisideahasbeencalledtheSecondIndustrialRevolution,and-directlyorindirectly–itisthebasisofvirtuallyeveryengineeringproductthatismadeandsoldtoday.Sincethecreationofthemicrocomputerinthelate1970sthecostofnumerically-controlledmachinetoolshasfallendramaticallyanditisnowpossiblefororganizationsofmodestmeans(suchasschools)andalsoprivateindividualsinthedevelopedworldtoownlightweightones.However,thevastmajorityofallthesemachines-heavyandlight-arestillcuttingmachines,asopposedtoadditiveormouldingmachines.Numerically-controlledcuttingmachinessufferfromaninherentproblem:givenacomputermod