Chapter-7Conversational-Implicature

Chapter4ConversationalImplicature(会话含义)What’simplicature?•Itissomethingwhichisimpliedinaconversation(Akindofextrameaning).Thatis,somethingwhichisimplicitinactuallanguageuse.4.2CooperativePrinciple•GriceintroducesCooperativePrinciple(CP)inhisbookLogicandConversation《逻辑与会话》in1975•在格赖斯看来，要使交谈顺利进行，就要求交谈参与者共同遵守一般原则，即在参与交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与交谈的公认目的和方向。Withinthisprinciple,Gricesuggestsfoursub-principlesormaxims:CPMaximofQuantity(量的原则)MaximofQuality（质的原则）MaximofRelation（关系原则）MaximofManner（方式原则）•但在现实交际中,人们出于种种原因,并不都严格地遵守合作原则及其相关准则.因而就产生了会话含义。FloutingtheMaximofquality(说自知是虚假的话;说缺乏足够证据的话)•Manyfiguresofspeechlikeirony,metaphor,hyperbole,rhetoricalquestionsandetc.belongtothiskindofflouting.eg:Heismadeofiron.(metaphor)Womenaretigers.•Theobviousfalsestatement:nohumanbeingsaremadeofiron.Nowomenaretigers.•Itsimplicatureishehascharacteristicslikeironlikehardness,non-flexibility,durability.FloutingtheMaximofQuantity(所说的话没有包含当前交谈目的所需要地信息;所说地话包含多于需要地信息.)•eg1:•A:Wheredoyoulive?•B:Somewhereintheearth.•eg2:•Girlsaregirls.•Ifhecomes,hecomes(tautology赘述).FloutingtheMaximofRelation（所说地话与话题无关联.）eg:A:I'moutofpetrolB:Thereisagarageroundthecorner.•BwouldbeinfringingthemaximBerelevantunlesshethinksitpossible,thatthegarageisopenandhaspetrolforsaleFloutingtheMaximofManner（所说的话晦涩、有歧义、不简练、没有条理）•A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?•B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.•Inthisexample,thewordscanonlybesaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingthewordicecream.Inthatcase,AwillknowthatBspellsthewordoutinordernottopromptthekids.从《泰坦尼克号》中看会话原则的违反(Floutingthemaximofquantity)Cal:We'llbothhavethelamb.Rare,withverylittlemintsause.Youlikelamb,right,sweetpea?Rose:Sausage?(Floutingthemaximofquality)Cal:IhadhopedyouwouldcometomelastnightRose:Iwastired~~~I'myourfianceeCal:Myfiancee!Mywifeinpractice,ifnotyetbylaw.Soyouwillhonorme~~~(Floutingthemaximofrelation)为了感谢男主人公杰克的救命之恩，罗丝找到他并表达了感谢之情，杰克已经推测一半原因是女主人公不爱自己的未婚夫。Jack:Doyoulovehim?Rose:Pardonme?Jack:Doyoulovehim?Rose:You'rebeingveryrude````Jack:Doyoulovetheguyornot?Rose:Thisisabsurd.Youdon'tknowmeandIdon'tknowyou....Youarerudeanduncouthandpresumptuous`````(Floutingthemaximofmanner)Rose:I'msocoldJack:Listen,Rose.You'regonnaoutofhere~~~Notthisnight~~~?Rose:Ican'tfeelmybodyJack:Winningthatticketwasthebestthingthateverhappenedtome~~promisemenow,Rose.AndneverletgoofthatpromiseRose:Ipromise.I'llneverletgo,Jack.I'llneverletgo.Differentkindsofimplicatures•ParticularCI(特殊会话含义)：thehearerinfersfromtheviolationwhythespeakerdeliberatelyviolatesthemaximinaspeificcontext.Forinstance,•A:Let'sgetsomethingforthekids.•B:Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.GeneralizedCI(一般会话含义)•Itreferstotheimplicaturethatisuauallycarriedwithintheutteranceproducedbythespeakeronthebasisofobservanceofacertainmaxim.Forexample,•Thesunisbiggerthantheearth.(ThespeakerobservetheQualityMaxim,whichgiverisetothegeneralizedCI:IbelieveandhaveadequateevidencetoassertthatThesunisbiggerthantheearth.)Propertiesofconversationalimplicature•Calculability（可推导性）•Cancellability(可取消性)•Nondetachability（不可分离性）•Non-conventionality（非规约性）•Indeterminacy（不确定性）4.5Non-observanceofconversationalmaxims•FloutingamaximItoccurswhenaspeakerblatantlyfailsobserveamaximatthelevelofwhatissaid,withthedeliberateintentionofgeneratinganimplicature.eg.(ThespeakerRupertAllasonisdiscussingtheidentityoftheso-calledfifthman''itwaseitherGrahamorRogerandIdon'tbelieveitwasRoger.Violatingamaxim•Gricedefinedthiscategoryspecificallyasunostentatiousnonobservanceofamaxim.•TheexampleinthebookshowsthatAlice'anwser''Thereisnotanotherman''doesnotrepesentsthatshedoesnothaveanaffairwithanyone,maybeawoman.Optingoutofamaxim•Aspeakeroptsoutofobservingamaximbyindicatingunwillingnesstocooperateinthewaythemaximrequires.•eg.A.wherehaveyoubeen?B.Out.C.Wheredoyoulive?D.Somewhere.Infringingamaxim•Inthecaseofinfringingamaxim,aspeakerfailstoobserveamaxim,withnointentionofgeneratinganyimplicature,norwithanyintentionofdeceiving.Itstemsfromimperfectlinguisticperformanceortheimperfectcommandofthelanguage.Suspendingamaxim•Suspendingamaximreferstothenon-observanceofamaximwhenthereisnoneedtooptoutofobservingthemaximsbecausetherearecertaineventsinwhichthereisnoexpectationonthepartofanyparticipantsthattheywillbefulfilled.Itisculture-related.Thenon-observanceofamaximdoesnotgiverisetoaconversationalimplicaturebecausealltheparticipantsknowthatissuspended.4.7Neo-Griceanstudies•Levinsion'sthree-principleformula•theQuantityPrinciple•theInformationPrinciple•theMannerPrincipleeachprinciplesubsumesaSpeaker'smaximandrecipient'scorollary.Apartfromparticularizedconversationalimplicature,theycanalsoexplainothertypesofimpliedmeaninginsentenceslikethefollowing:Manystudentsattendedthelecture.--Notallstudentsattendedthelecture.Sperber&Wilson'sRelevanceTheory•itisbasedonafewsimpleassunptions:first,everyutterancehasavarietyofpossibleinterpretations.•second,notalltheseinterpretationsoccurtothehearersimultaneously.•third,hearesareequippedwithasingle,verygeneralcriterionforevaluatinginterpretationsastheyoccurtothem.•fourth,thecriterionispowerfulenoughtoexclud