NewWords&Expressions:assert断言,主张predicate谓词conjunction合取quantifier量词connective连词quantification量词化disjunction析取statement语句2.11数理逻辑入门ElementaryMathematicalLogicKeypoints:introductiontopredicatesandquantifiersDifficultpoints:specialterminologypeculiartoprobabilitytheoryRequirements:1.了解谓词和量词的基本表示方法。2.掌握概率论基本的表示方法。Statementsinvolvingvariables,suchas“x3”,“x+y=3”,“x+y=z”areoftenfoundinmathematicalassertionandincomputerprograms.11-APredicates包含变量的语句,比如“x3”,“x+y=3”,“x+y=z”常出现在数学论断和计算机程序中。Thesestatementsareneithertruenorfalsewhenthevaluesofthevariablesarenotspecified.Inthissectionwewilldiscussthewaysthatpropositionscanbeproducedfromsuchstatements.若未给语句中的所有变量赋值,则不能判定该语句是真是假,本节要讨论由这种语句生成命题的方法。Thestatement“xisgreaterthan3”hastwoparts.Thefirstpart,thevariables,isthesubjectofthestatement.语句“x大于3”分成两部分,第一部分,变量,是语句的主语。Thesecondpart-thepredicate,“isgreaterthan3”-referstoapropertythatthesubjectofthestatementcanhave.第二部分,谓语,“大于3”,指的是语句主语具有的性质。Wecandenotethestatement“xisgreaterthan3”byP(x),wherePdenotesthepredicate“isgreaterthan3”andxisthevariable.把语句“x大于3”记为P(x),其中P表示谓词“大于3”,而x是变量。ThestatementP(x)isalsosaidtobethevalueofthepropositionalfunctionPatx.Onceavaluehasbeenassignedtothevariablex,thestatementsP(x)becomesapropositionandhasatruthvalue.语句P(x)也称为命题函数P在x点处的值。一旦赋予变量x一个值,语句P(x)就成为一个命题,有了真假值。Whenallthevariablesinapropositionalfunctionareassignedvalues,theresultingstatementhasatruthvalue.However,thereisanotherimportantway,calledquantification,tocreateapropositionfromapropositionalfunction.当命题函数所有变量都赋值时,结果语句就有了真假值。但是还有另外一种方式,称为量词化,可从命题函数中得到命题。11-BQuantifiersTwotypesofquantificationwillbediscussedhere,namely,universalquantificationandexistentialquantification.这里讨论两种量词化方法,也就是全称量词化和存在量词化。Manymathematicalstatementsassertthatapropertyistrueforallvaluesofavariableinaparticulardomain,calledtheuniverseofdiscourse.许多数学语句认为,性质对论域这个特定领域内变量的所有值都成立。Suchastatementisexpressedusingauniversalquantification.这样的语句可用全称量词化表示。TheuniversalquantificationofapropositionalfunctionisthepropositionthatassertthatP(x)istrueforallvaluesofxintheuniverseofdiscourse.Theuniverseofdiscoursespecifiesthepossiblevaluesofthevariablex.命题函数的全称量词化是一个命题,认为P(x)对论域中x的所有值P(x)都是真的。论域指定变量x的可能取值.本小节重点掌握本节要讨论由这种语句生成命题的方法。Thewaysthatpropositionscanbeproducedfromsuchstatementswillbediscussedinthissection.NewWords&Expressionsevent事件sample样本population总体statistics统计学probability概率2.12概率论与数理统计ProbabilityTheoryandMathematicalStatisticsIndiscussionsinvolvingprobability,oneoftenseesphrasesfromeverydaylanguagesuchas“twoeventsareequallylikely,”“aneventisimpossible,”or“aneventiscertaintooccur.”在讨论概率论时,会常常从日常用语中看到这样的语句:两个事件是同等可能的,一个事件是不可能的,一个事件肯定发生。Expressionsofthissorthaveintuitiveappealanditisbothpleasantandhelpfultobeabletoemploysuchcolorfullanguageinmathematicaldiscussions.这种表达方式非常直观,在数学讨论中,乐于使用这样有色彩的语言,而且使用起来很有帮助。Beforewecandoso,however,itisnecessarytoexplainthemeaningofthislanguageintermsofthefundamentalconceptsofourtheory.但是,在我们这么做之前,有必要根据我们理论的基本概念来解释这种语句的含义。※Becauseofthewayprobabilityisusedinpractice,itisconvenienttoimaginethateachprobabilityspace(S,B,P)isassociatedwitharealorconceptualexperiment.根据概率论实际应用的方式,把每一个概率空间(S,B,P)想象成对应于一个实际的或者概念上的试验是很方便的。TheuniversalsetScanthenbethoughtofasthecollectionofallconceivableoutcomesoftheexperiment,asintheexampleofcointossingdiscussedintheforegoingsection.全集S是试验中所有可能结果的集体,就像前面章节讨论的掷硬币的例子。EachelementofSiscalledanoutcomeorasampleandthesubsetsofSthatoccurintheBooleanalgebraBarecalledevents.Thereasonsforthisterminologywillbecomemoreapparentwhenwetreatsomeexamples.S的每一个元素称为结果或者样本,在布尔代数B中出现的S的子集称为事件,为什么使用这个术语在我们举例后就会很明显。Assumewehaveaprobabilityspace(S,B,P)associatedwithanexperiment.LetAbeanevent,andsupposetheexperimentisperformedandthatitsoutcomeisx.(Inotherwords,letxbeapointofS.)假设有一个对应于某一个试验的概率空间(S,B,P)。A是一个事件,假设试验已经完成,结果是x(换句话说,x是S中的一个点)。ThisoutcomexmayormaynotbelongtothesetA.Ifitdoes,wesaythattheeventAhasoccurred.结果x可能属于集合A,也可能不属于A。如果属于,则称事件A发生。否则,称事件A不发生,那么余事件发生。如果A等于空集,事件A称为不可能事件,因为在这种情况下试验的任何结果都不是A中的元素。Otherwise,wesaythattheeventAhasnotoccurred,inwhichcase,sothecomplementaryeventhasoccurred.'xA'AAneventAiscalledimpossibleif,becauseinthiscasenooutcomeoftheexperimentcanbeanelementofA.ATheeventAissaidtobecertainifA=S,becausetheneveryoutcomeisautomaticallyanelementofA.如果A=S,则称事件A是必然事件,因为每一个结果必然是A中的元素。EacheventAhasaprobabilityP(A)assignedtoitbytheprobabilityfunctionP.每一个事件A都通过概率函数P被赋予一个概率P(A)。ThenumberP(A)isalsocalledtheprobabilitythatanoutcomeoftheexperimentisoneoftheelementsofA.数P(A)又称为试验的结果,是A的一个元素的概率。WealsosaythatP(A)istheprobabilitythattheeventAoccurswhentheexperimentsisperformed.也称P(A)是试验完成时事件A出现的概率。TheimpossibleeventmustbeassignedprobabilityzerobecausePisafinitelyadditivemeasure.However,theremaybeeventswithprobabilityzerothatarenotimpossible.因为P是有限可加测度,所以不可能事件被赋予零概率。然而,也存在具有零概率的事件,但它并不是不可能事件。Inotherwords,someofthenonemptysubsetsofSmaybeassignedprobabilityzero.ThecertaineventSmustbeassignedprobability1bytheverydefinitionofprobability,buttheremaybeothersubsetsaswellthatareassignedprobability1.换句话说,S的某个非空子集也可能被赋予零概率。仅根据概率的定义就得把必然事件S的概率指定为1,但是