英语学习胡壮麟语言学教程Fromwordtot

1Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.2Whatarethethreebasicsyntacticrelations?3Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrence1.Syntacticrelations4Whatispositionalrelation?Whataretheothernamesforit?Whathappensifthewordorderischanged?51.1RelationsofPositionForlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject6Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,7Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher8PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations(组合关系)observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.9Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandareal来自一个地区的classifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.10Whatisrelationsofsubstitutability?Whataretheothernames?111.2RelationofSubstitutabilityTheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The______smiles.manboygirl12Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongmanThetallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.13ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmatic聚合RelationsbyHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.14Whatistherelationofco-occurrence?Istherelationsyntagmaticorparadigmatic?151.3RelationofCo-occurrenceItmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.16Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.172.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents2.1GrammaticalConstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.anappleateanappleMaryateanapple182.2ConstituentsandPhraseStructureConstituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)thegirlatetheapple(S)19ImmediateConstituent直接成分Analysis(ICAnalysis)Thegirlatetheapple20PhraseStructureTreediagramSNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple21Word-levelPhrasalN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=nounphraseAP=adjectivephraseVP=verbphrasePP=prepositionphraseS=sentenceorclause22BracketingBracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.(((The)(girl))((ate)((the)(apple))))[S[NP[DetThe][Ngirl]][VP[Vate][NP[Detthe][Napple]]]]23PractiseUsethetreediagramtoanalysethefollowingsentences:Theboywascrying.Heboughtanoldcarwithhisfirstpaycheque.24What’sthedifferencebetweenendocentricandexocentricconstructions?Whataretheirrespectivesyntacticconstructions?252.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsEndocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.2627Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,andtheconnective(be+complement)construction.28Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)29twomaintypesofendocentricconstructionsWhatarethecharacteristicsofcoordinations?Whatarethecharacteristicsofsubordinations?Whataretheirrespectiveplacesinrecursivenessoflanguages?302.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:31CoordinationCoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequival