Reference-and-Inference

Review:2KindsofMeaningS________meaningconcernsthemeaningoftheutteranceitself,regardlessofcontext.P_________meaningisthemeaningexpressedbythehearerintheutterance.Itoftendependsoncontext.Review:SentenceandUtterancemeaning(句子意义和话语意义)Sentencemeaningismoreabstract,morecloselyresembling________meaning.Utterancemeaning,moreconcrete,morecloselyresembles________meaning.Grice’sdistinctionGriceusedtheterm“naturalmeaning”and“non-naturalmeaningormeaning-nn)”,Thelatterisalsocalled“speaker’smeaning”.Grice,inhisexplanationofnon-naturalmeaning,believedthatifthespeakerwantstoexpressthenon-naturalmeaningsthroughutterances,thefollowingconditionsshouldbesatisfied:Conditions(1)Speakers(S)intendedutterances(U)tocausesomeeffect(Z)inrecipientH（说话人S意欲使话语U对受话人H产生某种效果)(2)Sintended(I)tobeachievedsimplybyHrecognizingthatintention(I)（说话人S意欲通过受话人H认识到上述意图I以达此目的)Grice,1957,转引自Levinson1983:16)Grice’sIdeaGriceregardsthecommunicationprocessastheprocessofthe1)expressionofintentionbythespeaker;and2)recognitionofintentionbythelistener.语言交际过程是说话人表达自己意图和受话人领会这一意图Grice’sideaGricebelievesthatthesentencemeaningistimefree.(句子意义没有时间性)Thesentencemeaningisnotalwaysthesameastheintentionofthespeakerintheuseofthissentenceinparticularcontext.句子意义并不总是和说话人在某一场合通过使用这一句子所要表达的句子相一致.“Heisafinefriend”.Themeaningissimple,butmaybesarcasticalso!(非自然意义或说话人意义)ReferenceandInferenceChapter3ABand:GentleJesters•I'mreallynottoofamiliarwiththe“GentleJesters.•Infact,Ican'treallyrememberanyoftheirsongs.•Theirsongsdon'thavelyrics,sotheycan'tbesung.•Theirmusicishardtodescribe;it'snotpunk,butit'snotbluesormetaleither.•Theyhaven'tbeenplayingtogetherformorethanfourorfiveyears.•Tothisday,theyhaveneverchargedforashow!•Nooneeverleavestheirshowsdisappointed.•Actually,theyarecurrentlylackingadrummer.DoyouthinkIshouldauditiontobetheirdrummer?Ican'taudition...becausetheydon'texist!Reference‘狗’and‘dog’bothrefertothesamething.Sensesof‘狗’and‘dog’aresimilar,notthesame,especiallyinmetaphorsorinidioms：•Does‘狗不理’=‘Dogsdon’tcare’?No—•Does‘underdog’=‘狗的下面’？No,itmeansroughly‘黑马’(or‘弱者’)Itdependsonspeakersandcontext!ReferenceWecansaythatreferentialusesoflanguage:“conveyinformationaboutrealphenomena”Non-referentialusesoflanguage,therefore,donotapplytophenomenaintheworld.Reference:FregeFrege/弗雷格said,regardingsenseandreference:2senses:MorningStarEveningStar1reference:Venus/金星REFERENCE:Theobjectthatwereferto.SENSE:ThewaywerefertotheobjectReference:FregeConsiderthetwosensesexpressedby:‘mybestfriend’and‘myex-neighbor.’Infact,theyrefertothesamereferent.CallinghimMattwouldrefertothesameperson.Sowouldusing‘大熊’?InferenceWeoftensay,“readingbetweenthelines.”Yousay‘absent’.Iinferskippingclass.(moreindirectinference)Yousay‘不在了’.Iinfer‘死了’.(moredirectinference)A:Doyouwanttowatchamovie,Robin?B1:I’msorry,Ineedtopreparemylessons.B2:Oh;well...Ihavesomethingtodo.WhatcanweinferfromB1？andB2?InferenceImaginethatyouwanttointroduceme.WhodoyousaythatIam?Robin,‘thatguy’RobinDay,戴罗宾,Mr.Day,Bird,萝卜,RobinAndrewGlenDay,‘he’,BrotherDay,宾宾,Honey,Ralph,andBeanerareallwaysthatpeoplehavereferredtome.YouneedtoinferwhichisMOSTappropriate.Considerourrelationshipandtheaudienceaswell.AnInferenceexampleWecanseeincreasinglyLESSinference:Thatoneguy...TheauthorwestudiedThemasterofEnglishpoetryAnneHathaway’shusbandAuthorofRomeoandJulietWilliamShakespeareReferentialandAttributiveUsesWhatdoesthissentencemean?‘我想嫁一个哈尔滨人。’InEnglish,‘any’specifiesattributiveusage.(Chinese,however,isratherambiguous.)Relativepronounsactattributively.whatever=anythingthatwhoever=anyonewhowherever=atanyplacewhenever=atanytimeNamesandReferentsBertrandRussellsaidthatnamesare“abbreviateddescriptions.”So,‘Robin’isashortformof‘RobinAndrewGlenDay,theguyfromOmaha,USA—wholivesinHarbin,andis30yearsoldandwhoismarriedtoabeautifullady.’Considercommonnounswithsimplenames.NamesandReferentsBookexamples:Shakespeare,cheesesandwich,10:30Thestrictsemanticmeaningof‘Mozart’isextendedtoapragmaticmeaningwhichincludeswhateverMozartproduced.Therefore,theutterancesarefreedfromthegrammaticalrestraintsof‘Mozart’.NamesandReferentsAnyextranon-naturalmeaningused...isonlyvalidbecausesuchanon-naturalmeaningisusefulindifferentiation.‘Givemethecoffee.’isverysimple.But,ifyou’vebeenaskedwhichflavorofice-creamyouwouldlike....anothermeaningisassumed.Reference:Co-textCo-textissimply“materialthataccompaniesthereferringexpression.”Forourpurposes,wecanthinkofcontextasEVERYTHINGassociatedwithatextandco-textasthatpresentedIMMEDIATELYwiththetext.AnaphoricReferenceAnaphorsreferbacktoantecedents:‘Johnhadagirlfriend.Thenhemarriedher.’Whataretheanaphors?theAntecedents?Considerthefollowingsentence’smeaning:IneverkissedmywifebeforeImarriedher.Atthattime,shewasmygirlfriend.CataphoraIdon’tthinkcataphoraoccursinChinese.InEnglish,someonemightsay:“AndthenIsawher—myfuturewife.”Thisisinterestingbecausethecataphorprecedesitsantecedent.ZeroAnaphora/Ellipsis…Anobjectorrequiredentityismissing!!!Englishexamples:a)Shealwaysbrushesbeforebed.b)Thecatwasangry;Ibrushedtoolong.c)Baldnessisfatetellingyouthatyoubrushtooha