二语习得(L8)

LessonEightTheuniversalHypothesisandSecondLanguageAcquisitionTasks1writingapaperonthetopicAcomparisonbetweenmarkedrulesandunmarkedrulesLearnerprocessesTheuniversalHypothesisandSecondLanguageAcquisitionWhatistheuniversalHypothesis?The‘universalhypothesis’statesthatlanguageacquisitionisgovernedbythewayinwhichnaturallanguageareorganized.Thatis,certainuniversallinguisticpropertiesinfluencetheorderinwhichtherulesofaspecificlanguageareacquired.Accordingtotheuniversalhypothesis,then,itislinguisticratherthangeneralcognitivefactorsthatdetermineacquisition.Twoapproachesoflearnerprocessinginput1.Usinggeneralcognitivestrategieswhicharepartoftheirproceduralknowledgeandwhichareusedinotherformsoflearning.Thesestrategiesareoftenreferredtoaslearnerstrategies.2.UsingaspeciallinguisticfacultythatenablesthemtooperateontheinputdatainordertodiscovertheL2rulesinmaximallyefficientways.ThislinguisticfacultyisreferredtoasUniversalGrammar.(P13)Thepurposeofthischapter.Theimportanceofstudyoflinguisticuniversals.ThecontentsofthischapterThecontentsofthischapterUniversalGrammar–typologicaluniversalsTheroleofuniversalsinL1acquisitionTheroleoflinguisticuniversalsinSLAeffectongrammarformationeffectonL1transferTheproblemsoftheUniversalHypothesistypologicaluniversals语言类型普遍性“E-方法”（Externalized）Linguisticuniversals语言普遍性universalGrammar普遍语法“I-方法”（Internalized）DefinitionofUGWhyaretheseproperties‘inherentinthehumanmind?’Whatexactlyarethe‘generalprinciplesthatapplytoalllanguage’?UniversalgrammarChomskyassumesthatchildrenarebornwithalanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD).ThisLADismadeupofasetofgeneralprinciplescalleduniversalgrammar.Thesegeneralprinciplescanbeappliedtoallthelanguagesintheworld.NoamChomsky(乔姆斯基）Theyear1957sawthepublicationofNoamChomsky’sbookSyntacticStructures,whichstartedarevolutioninthelinguisticworldandusheredinanewschool---thetransformationalgenerativelinguisticsCook(1985)summarizingtheChomskyanposition,defines‘universalgrammar’as‘thepropertiesinherentinthehumanmind’.Universalgrammarconsistsofasetofgeneralprinciplesthatapplytoalllanguageratherthanasetofparticularrules.Whyaretheseproperties‘inherentinthehumanmind?’Thepovertyofthestimulus正面数据”(positiveevidence)Inputinsufficient匮乏负面数据(negativeevidence)Whatexactlyarethe‘generalprinciplesthatapplytoalllanguage’?substantiveuniversals内容普遍现象UniversalGrammarformaluniversals形式普遍现象UniversalGrammarconsistsofprinciplesandparameters,whicharedescribedbymeansofhighlyabstractstatementsrelatingtogeneralpropertiesoflanguage.(1994:416)Principlesreferstohighlyabstractpropertiesofgrammarwhichapplytolanguageingeneralandwhich,therefore,underliethegrammaticalrulesofallspecificlanguages.Theterm‘parameters’referstoprinciplesthatvaryincertainrestrictedwaysfromonelanguagetoanother.Thatis,theytaketheformofafinitesetofoptionswhichindividuallanguagesdrawonandwhichdefinethevariationpossiblebetweenlanguage.Anexampleofapriciple:subjcency(邻接)Thisdefinestherestrictionsthatgovernhowfaronephrasecanbemovedfrom‘deep’to‘surface’structure.1.WhatdidRandythink?2.WhatdidRandythinkhisbrotherhadwon?3.*WhatdidRandywonderwhetherhisbrotherwouldwin?Anexampleofparameter:‘pro-drop’Languagevaryaccordingtowhethertheyforbidthedeletionofsubjectpronouns.English,forexample,doesnotnormallydeletepronouns:*IsthePresidentofUnitedStates.Spanish,ontheotherhand,permitsnullpronounsubjects.Ugalsoprovidesabasisfordeterminingmarkedness.Thedegreeofmarkednessdependsonwhetherafeatureispartofthe‘core’orthe‘periphery’.Coregrammar:unmarked,thatis,theyaccordwiththegeneraltendenciesoflanguage.Peripheryrules:marked,thatistheyareexceptionalinsomeway)corerules(UG)areunmarkedMarkednessperipheryrulesaremarkedTypologicaluniversalsDefinition:Typologicaluniversalsareidentifiedbyexamingarepresentativesampleofnaturallanguagesinordertoidentifyfeaturesthatarecommontoallormostoftheselanguages.Typologicaluniversalscanconsistofabsolutes(whichoccurinalllanguages)ortendencies(whichoccurinalargenumberoflanguages)absolutesUniversalstendenciessubstantiveUniversalsformalclusterimplicationalhierarchySubstantive:fixedfeaturessuchasthedistinctivephoneticfeaturesofwhichsoundsaremade,orsyntacticcategoriessuchasnoun,verb,andobject.Formal:statementsaboutwhatgrammaticalrulesarepossible.Implicational:relatethepresenceofonelinguisticfeaturetothepresenceofotherlinguisticFeatures.Thus,iffeaturexispresentinagivenlanguage,itcanbeassumedthatfeaturey,z…narealsopresent.AnexampleofhierarchyimlicationaluniversalsOrderofpronounfuctionsinrelativecluses:SUDOIOOBLGENOCOMPSymbolRelativepronounExamplefunctionSUSubjectThemanthatkickedthedog…DODirectobjectThetreethatthemancutdown…IOIndirectobjectThemanthatshecookedcakefor…OBLObliqueThehousethatshelivesin…GENGenitiveThedogwhoseownerhasdied…OCOMPObjectofThemanthatIamricherthan…comparativeTheroleofuniversalsinL1acquisition1.GrammarconstructionisconstrainedbytheoperationofUniversalGrammar,whichregulatestheoptionsthechildhastochoosefrom.Thatis,hypothesisformationisconstrainedbyinnatepr