语言学

1.LanguageandCulture1.1Whatisculture?􀂄􀂄Broadlyspeaking,itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguage.􀂄􀂄Inanarrowsense,itreferstolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.Theformerreferstosomethingconcrete,substantialandobservable,forexample,theforbiddencity,thegreatpyramid,etc.Thelattercaneitherbetangibleasworksofphilosophy,literature,orintangibleasideologies,beliefs,valuesetc.1.2TherelationshipbetweenL&C􀂄􀂄Lexpressesculturalreality.Aluckydogvs.狗仗人势􀂄􀂄Lembodiesculturalidentity.Apersoninacommunity…􀂄􀂄Lsymbolizesculturalreality.PeopleareidentifiedviatheiruseofL.􀂄􀂄Lhelpsperpetuatetheculture.􀂄􀂄Tosumup,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.􀂄􀂄Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinL.Everypeoplehaveitsdistinctlanguageandculture.Differentculturesmaketheirdifferentideas,valuesandbeliefsreflectedindifferentlanguages.eg.dragon;Thatis,thesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.Languageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.Culturealsoaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.Ontheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;Ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.ThestudyoflanguageandcultureontheBritainandAmericansidesOnBritainside,thefirstpersonwhocomeintoourviewisMalinowsky,whowaspioneerinthefieldofanthropologicalstudy.Malinowskyputforwardanimportantconceptthatbroughttogetherthelinguisticstudyandlanguageuseinrealsituation.Theconceptiscontext.Beforehim,thelinguisticstudiesaremainlycomparativeandstructural,thatis,suchstudiesareonlyconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationoflanguageswithoutconnectiontotheiruseinreallifeandculture.Eg.Hiscasestudyoftheprimitivemen.Malinowsky’scontextideawasfurtherdevelopedbyFirth,thefounderofLondonschoolintermsoflinguistics.Firth’sfamoussaying:“Eachwordwhenusedinanewcontextisanewword.”AnotherpersonwhoplaysamoreimportantinfluenceonlinguisticstudyinchinathanhistwopredecessorsisHalliday.Hissystemic-functionalgrammariswidelyappliedinChinesestudy.OntheAmericanside,attentionwillbedrawntotwofamouspersons,SapirandWhorf.NobodycantalksomethingaboutcultureandlanguagewithoutspeakingSapir-Whorfhypothesis.1.3Sapir-WhorfHypothesis􀂄􀂄OurLhelpsmouldourwayofthinkinganddifferentLsmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.􀂄􀂄Lfilterspeople’speceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.Strongversion&weakversionStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;Weakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.---ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights;􀂄􀂄Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.􀂄􀂄Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.􀂄􀂄English:horseshoe􀂄􀂄French:feracheval——ironforhorse􀂄􀂄German:hufeisen——hoofiron􀂄􀂄TheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.1.4Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences􀂄􀂄Termsofaddress􀂄􀂄Greetings􀂄􀂄Thanksandcompliments􀂄􀂄Privacyandtaboos􀂄􀂄Colorwords1.5Culture-loadedwords􀂄􀂄烫手的山芋vs.hotpotato􀂄􀂄雨后春笋vs.springlikemushroom􀂄􀂄大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友􀂄􀂄meatandpotatoes，Meatanddrinktosomeone􀂄􀂄sweetsmile(甜甜的笑容),sweetgirl(甜美的女孩),sweetnothings(甜言蜜语)􀂄􀂄killthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggs”vs.“杀鸡取卵”􀂄􀂄Coldwordsvs.冷言冷语􀂄􀂄Constantdroppingwearsthestone.滴水穿石􀂄􀂄Diamondcutdiamond.棋逢对手􀂄􀂄Killamanwhenheisdown.落井下石1.6Culturaloverlapanddiffusion􀂄􀂄Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomespartofcultureB.􀂄􀂄LoanwordsinJapanese,Chinese,English.􀂄􀂄Linguisticimperialism􀂄􀂄Linguisticnationalism2.Languageandsociety􀂄􀂄Twoviewsoflinguisticinquiry:􀂄􀂄MonisticorAutonomousPursuitofanindependentscience:Chomskyanlinguistics􀂄􀂄Dualistic:Sociolinguistics2.1Sociolinguistics􀂄􀂄Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenLandsociety,betweentheusesofLandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersofLlive.2.2Relatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety􀂄----Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.􀂄Languageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfillanimportantsocialfunction--toestablishandmaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.(e.g.greeting)Asasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial􀂄􀂄Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Thekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyhiss