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1RevisionContents:Unit1LanguageandLearning1.Whatarethemajorviewsoflanguage?Whataretheirimplicationstolanguageteachingorlearning?StructuralView:Itseeslanguageasalinguisticsystemmadeupofvarioussubsystem:fromphonological,morphological,lexical,etc.tosentence.Eachlanguagehasafinitenumberofsuchstructuralitems.Tolearnalanguagemeanstolearnthesestructuralitemssoastobeabletounderstandandproducelanguage.Audiolingualapproach:Theteachingofasecondlanguagethroughimitation,repetition,andreinforcement.Itemphasizestheteachingofspeakingandlisteningbeforereadingandwritingandtheuseofmothertongueintheclassroomisnotallowed.Theprincipalfeaturesofaudiolingualismareanemphasisonstructuresinthelanguagewhichcanbelearnedasregularpatternsofverbalbehaviorandthebeliefthatlearningisaprocessofhabitformation.FunctionalView:Itseeslanguageasalinguisticsystembutalsoasameansfordoingthings.Mostofourday-to-daylanguageuseinvolvesfunctionalactivities:offering,suggesting,advising,apologizing,etc.Therefore,learnerslearnalanguageinordertodothingswithit.Toperformfunctions,learnersneedtoknowhowtocombinethegrammaticalrulesandthevocabularytoexpressnotionsthatperformthefunctions.Communicativeapproachesarebasedonthisviewoflanguage.InteractionalView:Itconsiderslanguageasacommunicativetool,whosemainuseistobuildupandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Therefore,learnersnotonlyneedtoknowthegrammarandvocabularyofthelanguage,butalsoneedtoknowtherulesforusingtheminawholerangeofcommunicativecontext.Someofthelanguagelearningapproachesandmethodsbasedonthisviewoflanguageare:Strategicinteraction;communicativeapproaches.2.WhatarethemajorViewsonlanguagelearning?Whataretheirimplicationstolanguageteaching?BehaviouralisttheoryBasedonthetheoryofconditioning,Skinnersuggestedlanguageisalsoaformofbehaviour.Itcanbelearnedthesamewayasananimalistrainedtorespondtostimuli.Thistheoryoflanguagelearningisreferredtoasbehaviouralism,whichwasadoptedforsometimebythelanguageteachingprofession,particularlyinAmerica.Oneinfluentialresultistheaudio-lingualmethod,whichinvolvesendless“listenandrepeat”drillingactivities.Theideaofthismethodisthatlanguageislearnedbyconstantrepetitionandthereinforcementoftheteacher.Mistakeswereimmediatelycorrected,andcorrectutteranceswereimmediatelypraised.Thismethodisstillusedinmanypartsofthe2worldtoday.CognitivetheoryItseemstobelargelytheresultofNoamChomsky’sreactiontoSkinner’sbehaviouraltheory,whichledtotherevivalofstructurallinguistics.ThekeypointofChomsky’stheoryisreflectedinhismostfamousquestion:iflanguageisalearnedbehaviour,howcanachildproduceasentencethathasneverbeensaidbyothersbefore.Oneinfluentialideaisthatstudentsshouldbeallowedtocreatetheirownsentencesbasedontheirunderstandingofcertainrules.ThisideaisclearlyinoppositiontotheAudio-LingualMethod.Accordingtothecognitivetheory,learningisaprocessinwhichthelearneractivelytriestomakesenseofdata.Thebasictechniqueassociatedwithacognitivetheoryoflanguagelearningistheproblem-solvingtask.Constructivisttheory:Learningisacomplexcognitiveprocessinwhichthelearnerconstructsmeaningbasedonhisorherownexperiencesandwhathe/shealreadyknows.ImplicationsforclassroomteachingTeachingshouldbebuiltbasedonwhatlearnersalreadyknowandengagelearnersinlearningactivities.Itisbelievedthateducationisusedtodevelopthemind,notjusttorotateorrecallwhatislearned.Teachersneedtodesignactivitiestointeractwithlearnerstofosterinventive,creative,criticallearners.Teachersmustbalanceanunderstandingofthehabits,characteristicsaswellaspersonalitiesofindividuallearnerswithanunderstandingofthemeansofarousinglearners’interestandcuriosityforlearning.Socio-constructivisttheory:Itemphasizesinteractionandengagementwiththetargetlanguageinasocialcontextbasedontheconceptof‘ZoneofProximalDevelopment’(ZPD)andscaffolding.Learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.Withtheteacher’sscaffoldingthroughquestionsandexplanations,orwithamorecapablepeers’support,thelearnercanmovetoahigherlevelofunderstandingandextendhis/herskillsandknowledgetothefullestpotential.Unit2CommunicativePrinciplesandActivities1.ThegoalofCLTistodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.2.Whatiscommunicativecompentence?Trytolistsomeofitscomponentsandtheirimplicationtoteaching.Communicativecompentencereferstoboththeknowledgeaboutthelanguageandtheknowledgeabouthowtousethelanguageappropriatelyincommunicativesituations.AccordingtoHedge,itincludesfivecomponents.Linguisticcompetence---knowledgeofthelanguageitself,itsformandmeaningPragmaticcompetence---theappropriateuseoflanguageinsocialcontextDiscoursecompetence---one’sabilitytocreatecoherentwrittentextorconversation3andtheabilitytounderstandthem(abilitytoexpressortounderstandatopiclogicallyandcoherentlybyeffectivelyemployingorcomprehendingthecohesivemarkersusedinthediscourse/abilitytoinitiate,develop,enter,interrupt,check,orconfirminaconversation)Strategiccompetence---strategiesoneemployswhenthereiscommunicationbreakdownduetolackofresourcesFluency----one’sabilityto‘linkunitsofspeechtogetherwithfacilityandwitho