unit-3-globalization

theactorprocessofglobalizing;thestateofbeingglobalizedespecially;thedevelopmentofanincreasinglyintegratedglobaleconomymarkedespeciallybyfreetrade,freeflowofcapital,andthetappingofcheaperforeignlabormarketsGlobalization(orglobalisation)istheprocessofinternationalintegrationarisingfromtheinterchangeofworldviews,products,ideasandotheraspectsofculture.Advancesintransportationandtelecommunicationsinfrastructure,includingtheriseofthetelegraphanditsdevelopmentandtheInternet,aremajorfactorsinglobalization,generatingfurtherinterdependenceofeconomicandculturalactivities.Thoughscholarsplacetheoriginsofglobalizationinmoderntimes,otherstraceitshistorylongbeforetheEuropeanAgeofDiscoveryandvoyagestotheNewWorld.SomeeventracetheoriginstothethirdmillenniumBCE.Large-scaleglobalizationbeganinthe19thcentury.Inthelate19thcenturyandearly20thcentury,theconnectednessoftheworld'seconomiesandculturesgrewveryquickly.Thetermglobalizationhasbeenincreasinglyusedsincethemid-1980sandespeciallysincethemid-1990s.In2000,theInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)identifiedfourbasicaspectsofglobalization:tradeandtransactions,capitalandinvestmentmovements,migrationandmovementofpeople,andthedisseminationofknowledge.Further,environmentalchallengessuchasglobalwarming,cross-boundarywaterandairpollution,andover-fishingoftheoceanarelinkedwithglobalization.Globalizingprocessesaffectandareaffectedbybusinessandworkorganization,economics,socio-culturalresources,andthenaturalenvironment.Withthedevelopmentofglobalization,differentcivilizationsmeetandconflict,andthisistheso-calledCivilizationConflictsortheClashofCivilizations.JackGoody,anotedsocialanthropologist,analyzesthesequestionsandoffershisownviewsinhisnewbook,CapitalismandModernity:TheGreatDebate.Theparticipantsinthisdebateoftenhavebeendividedintotwobroadcamps.Ontheoneside,whichIwillcallheretheEuropeanists,arethosewhoconsidertheWest'sattainmentofeconomicadvantageashavingbeentheresultoffundamentalsocietaladvantages,generallyinstitutionalorcultural.Factorsoftencitedincludelimitedpowerofthestate,respectforpropertyrights,thespiritofindividuality,positiveattitudestowardwealthaccumulation,andseparationofscientificandtechnicaladvancesfromreligiouscontrol.Accordingtothisgroup,thebifurcation（分歧）betweentheEastandtheWestoccurredearly—atleastbefore1700andinsomewayscenturiesbeforethat.Theopposinggroup,whichJackGoldstonehascalledtheCaliforniaSchool,explicitlyrejectstheassertionofwhattheywouldtermculturalsuperioritybytheEuropeanists,characterizingitasoverlybroad,Eurocentric,andbuiltonfaultyassumptionsaboutboththeWestandtherestoftheworld.TheirpositionisthatanyspecificassertionsofEuropeanculturaladvantagecanbedisprovedbyexaminingindividualcases,andthattheeconomicadvantagegainedbytheWesteithercanneverbeshowntohavespecificcausesorwascausedbynarrower,moretechnicalexplanations.Twoexamplesofthislattertypeofexplanationarebullion（金银）flowstoEuropeandthereadyaccessibilityofcoalandironinBritainConsistentwiththeseviews,thisgrouparguesthatthebifurcationbetweentheWestandtheEastoccurredlater(after1750oreven1800)andtookplaceinaworldeconomywhereChinawasamajor,possiblydominantplayer.ModernizationtheoryoriginatedfromtheideasofGermansociologistMaxWeber(1864–1920).Moderniziationtheorywasadominantparadigminthesocialsciencesinthe1950sand1960s,thenwentintoadeepeclipse.Itmadeacomebackafter1990butremainsacontroversialmodel.Modernizationtheorybothattemptstoidentifythesocialvariablesthatcontributetosocialprogressanddevelopmentofsocietiesandseekstoexplaintheprocessofsocialevolution.Modernizationtheorystressesnotonlytheprocessofchangebutalsotheresponsestothatchange.Italsolooksatinternaldynamicswhilereferringtosocialandculturalstructuresandtheadaptationofnewtechnologies.Modernizationtheorymaintainsthattraditionalsocietieswilldevelopastheyadoptmoremodernpractices.Proponentsofmodernizationtheoryclaimthatmodernstatesarewealthierandmorepowerfulandthattheircitizensarefreertoenjoyahigherstandardofliving.Developmentssuchasnewdatatechnologyandtheneedtoupdatetraditionalmethodsintransport,communicationandproduction,itisargued,makemodernizationnecessaryoratleastpreferabletothestatusquo.Historianslinkmodernizationtotheprocessesofurbanizationandindustrializationandthespreadofeducation.AsKendall(2007)notes,Urbanizationaccompaniedmodernizationandtherapidprocessofindustrialization.”Modernityisatermofartusedinthehumanitiesandsocialsciencestodesignatebothahistoricalperiod(themodernera),aswellastheensembleofparticularsocio-culturalnorms,attitudesandpracticesthataroseinpost-medievalEuropeandhavedevelopedsince,invariouswaysandatvarioustimes,aroundtheworld.Whileitincludesawiderangeofinterrelatedhistoricalprocessesandculturalphenomena(fromfashiontomodernwarfare),itcanalsorefertothesubjectiveorexistentialexperienceoftheconditionstheyproduce,andtheirongoingimpactonhumanculture,institutions,andpoliticsThenextphaseintheuseofthetermhasbeentoseehybridityasaculturaleffectofglobalization.Forexample,hybridityispresentedbyKraidyasthe‘culturallogic’ofglobalizationasit“