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Chapter44.1syntactic（句法的）relations4.1.1positionalrelation(位置关系）Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasethatcanoccurinaclause.Positionalrelationorwordorderreferstothesequential（有序的）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Positionalrelationareamanifestation(表现）ofoneaspectofsyntagmaticrelationsWordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordordergeneticandclassification)toclassifylanguagewords.SixpossibletypesoflanguageSVOVSOSOVOVSVOSEnglishisSVO.4.1.2relationofsubstitutability(可代替性）Firstlyrelationofsubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableofeachothergrammaticallyinsentencewiththesamestructure.Secondlyitreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.ThisiswhatSaussurecalledassociative(联想的）relationsorinHjemslev’sparadigmatic(纵聚性的)relation.4.1.3relationofco-occurrence(共现）Meanswordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitprrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstofromasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrationspartlytoparadigmaticrelations.4.2grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents4.2.1GrammaticalconstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasesstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes(词位）4.2.2immediateconstituents(直接成分）Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:Thisistreediagram.在句子结构分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在Thegirlatetheapple本身的（A）theboy（B)atetheapple(C）都是SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位，如果两个成分B（theboy)C(atetheapple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=nounphraseAP=adjectivephraseVP=verbphrasePP=prepositionphraseS=sentenceorclauseTodismantleagrammaticalconstructureisthiswayiscalledimmediateconstituentsorICanalysis.Bracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.(((The)(girl))((ate)((the)(apple))))2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsEndocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.4.2.3.EndocentricandExocentricConstructions4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.4.2.3.1Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,andtheconnective(be+complement)construction.2.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:Coordination（并列）isacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.CoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]CoordinationofAPs:[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]CoordinationofSs:[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].Subordination（从属）referstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:4.3.Syntactic（句法）FunctionThesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.4.3.1SubjectInEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”and“logicalsubject”WordorderSubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Pro-formsThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:AgreementwiththeverbInthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverbContentquestionsIfthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asin4.4Category（范畴）Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:C