Learning-strategy

LearningStrategy•1.DefinitionofLearningStrategies•2.DifferencesAmongSeveralConcepts•3.ClassificationofLearningStrategies•4.DevelopmentofLearningStrategies•5.FactorsInfluencingLearningStrategiesOutlines1.DefinitionofLearningStrategiesSourceDefinitionSourceDefinitionStern1983‘Inourview,strategyisbestreservedforgeneraltendenciesoroverallcharacteristicsoftheapproachemployedbythelanguagelearner,leavingtechniquesasthetermtorefertoparticularformsofobservablelearningbehaviour.’WeinsteinandMayer1986‘Learningstrategiesarethebehavioursandthoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearningthatareintendedtoinfluencethelearner’sencodingprocess.’(Ellis,1994:531)SourceDefinitionChamot1987‘Learningstrategiesaretechniques,approachesordeliberateactionsthatstudentstakeinordertofacilitatethelearning,recallofbothlinguisticandcontentareainformation.’Rubin1987‘Learningstrategiesarestrategieswhichcontributetothedevelopmentofthelanguagesystemwhichthelearnerconstructsandaffectlearningdirectly.’Oxford1989‘Languagelearningstrategiesarebehavioursoractionswhichlearnersusetomakelanguagelearningmoresuccessful,self-directedandenjoyable.’Itisnotclearwhethertheyaretobeperceivedofasbehavioural(and,therefore,observable)orasmental（unobservable),orasboth.ProblemsOxford(1989):essentiallybehavioural;WeinsteinandMayer(1986):bothbehaviouralandmental;Chamot(1999):mentalprocesseswhichcan’tbeobserveddirectly.Asecondproblemconcernstheprecisenatureofthebehavioursthataretocountaslearningstrategies.Stern(1983)‘strategies’:generalandmoreorlessdeliberate‘approaches’tolearning;‘techniques’:observableformsoflanguagelearningbehaviourevidentinparticularareasoflanguagelearningsuchasgrammarandvocabulary;Otherscholars:usetheterm‘strategy’torefertothekindofbehavioursSterncallstechniques.Cohen(1998):strategiesrefertobothgeneral‘approaches’tolearningandconcretelearningbehaviour;Athirdproblemiswhetherlearningstrategiesaretobeseenasconsciousandintentionalorassubconscious.Chamot(1987):‘deliberateactions’.Bialystock(1990):someyounglanguagelearnnerssometimesadoptcertainstrategiestolearn,buttheythemselvesdonotrealizetheirownstrategicalbehaviors.Afourthproblemconcernswhetherlearningstrategiesareseenashavingadirectoranindirecteffectoninterlanguagedevelopment.Robin(1987):somewhatcontroversially,assertsthattheeffectisadirectone.Seliger:considerittobemoreindirect—strategyuseprovideslearnerswithdata,uponwhichthe‘deep’subconsciousprocessescanwork.2.DifferencesAmongSeveralConcepts（程晓堂&郑敏，2002:14）1.LearningStrategies&LearnerStrategies学习者策略，是Learnerstrategies的直译。我们没译成更符合汉语习惯的“学习策略”，是为了不与“学习者策略”之一的“学习策略”（learningstrategies)相混淆。——庄智象、束定芳《外语学习中策略研究与外语教学》现代外语、1994、第三期2.LearningStrategies&LearningTechniques学习方法和学习技巧：学习者为了解决某个学习问题或为了使学习过程更有效而采取的某些具体的做法或手段。学习策略：除完全包括学习方法和学习技巧以外，还包括其他很多方面。如学习者对学习内容和学习过程本身的认识，学习者对学习目标和学习过程的宏观调控和计划，学习者使用语言时采取的弥补性或辅助性的手段以及为了创造更多的学习机会而采取的策略。总之，学习策略比学习方法和学习技巧涵盖的内容要广的多。（程晓堂&郑敏，2002:15）3.ClassificationofLearningStrategiesLearningStrategies(O’Malleyetal.1985b:582-584)1------Inaccordancewithinformation-processingmodelInaccordancewiththerelationshipbetweenstrategiesandlanguagematerials.DirectStrategiesIndirectStrategiesMemoryStrategiesMeta-cognitiveStrategiesSocialStrategies(Oxford,1990)2CognitiveStrategiesAffectiveStrategiesLearningStrategiesCompensationStrategies3英语学习策略系统观念方法管理方法学习方法（文秋芳，1996:5）观念：学习者对“如何学好英语”的认识。方法：学习者为学好英语所采取的行动。管理方法：学习者为了安排和组织语言学习活动所采取的一系列做法，通常不涉及英语语言材料本身。学习方法：与英语语言材料有直接联系的学习活动。4.DevelopmentofLearningStrategiesThestrategyconceptcamefromancientGreece,wherestrategymeantplansforwinningawar.Thoughthemilitarymeaningcontinues,strategynowalsomeansasystematicplanforachievinganygoal.Theideaofstrategiesforlearningstartedasaresultofthecognitiveshiftinpsychology(1950s-1960sandbeyond),whenstimulus-responsebehaviorismwasoverturned.GeneralTrendsofLearningStrategiesDevelopment(Oxford,strategiesforlearningasecondorforeignlanguage,languageteaching,2011:168)AncientGreeceBehaviorismCognitivismTeacher-centeredStudent-centeredAutonomy1970sDescriptionandexplanationoflearningstrategiesClassificationoflearningstrategiesRubin(1975);Naiman,Frohlich&Todesco(1975);Stern(1975)identifiedcharacteristicsoftheprototypical‘goodlanguagelearner’(GLL).Selinker(1972)distinguishedbetweenlanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusestrategies.O’Neil(1978);O’Neil&Spielberger(1979)emphasizedtheimportanceofthreelearningstrategytypes:‘cognitivestrategies’,‘metacognitivestrategies’,‘affectivestrategies’.FeaturesofLearningStrategiesDevelopment1980sResearchonlearningstrategydependednotonlyonexperience,butalsooninstructionoflearningtheory.Researchonlearningstrategymovedfrommacroscopictomicroscopicview.Researchonlearningstrategymovedfromtheorytopractice.Themethodsofresearchesgraduallyattractedpeople’sattention.O’Malley,Chamot&Walker(1987)showedthatcertaintypesoflearningstrategiesareusedfordevelopingdeclarativeandproceduralknowledgebasedonAnderson’smodelinwhichAndersonconceptualizedabovetwogeneraltypesofknowledgeinhismodelofcognitiveinformation-processing.Bialystok(1981)discoveredthatfunctionalpracticestrategi