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Chapter1Linguistics考点1：定义（选择题或填空题）Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.▲Languagedistinguisheshumanbeingsfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.Linguistics:thescientificstudyofhumanlanguages.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.（判断题）★注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。Languageisvocal1)Theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.2)Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Wordisthesmallestunitthatcanbeused,byitself,asacompleteutterance.词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位考点2：Designfeatures语言的定义特征（分析大题）Designfeatures:thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguagesofanimals.（定义填空题）▲语言的四个Designfeatures也是区别人类语言好动物语言的特征A、Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。Differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.（语素音义关系的任意性）Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.（语言在句法层面是非任意性）【判断题】Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成，即规约性★任意性具有两个层面，而非anylevel!!!(判断题)Arbitrariness→Makeslanguagepotentiallycreativelanguageconvention→MakeslanguagesystematicB、Duality双重性，二元性Humanlanguageisproductiveorcreativeduetodualityandrecursiveness(递归性).（填空题）Thestructuralorganizationoflanguageintotwoabstractlevels:?Atthelowerlevel(thesecondarylevel):meaningfulunits?Atthehigherlevel(theprimarylevel):meaninglesssegmentsExpressionofduality:?1.Combinemeaninglesssoundsintomeaningfullinguisticunits?2.CombinesmallunitsintobigunitsC、Creativity创造性Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.（recursesentence）Recursiveness：itreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutdefinitelimit.D、Displacement移位性Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.（定义填空题）移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体，时间或观点。动物语言与人类语言移位性的表现(判断题)Suchanimalsareunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”.Humanlanguageis,onthecontrary,stimulusfree.(动物语言会受到直接刺激控制)Ourlanguageenablesustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdonotexistordonotyetexist.考点3：FunctionsofLanguage语言的功能A、Theinformativefunction(信息功能)Informativefunction:themajorroleoflanguage;languageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.B、InterpersonalFunction(人际功能)InterpersonalFunction:themostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.eg:DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant…等表称呼的C、Theperformativefunction(施事功能):Theperformativefunction:Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.用说话表示行为D、Theemotivefunction(情感功能):Theemotivefunction:oneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.□标志性语句：swearword(誓言)、obscenities(侮辱之词)、involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery、conventionalwords/phrases,eg:–God,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh我的妈呀，老天爷啊，晕E、Phaticcommunion（寒暄功能）Theuseoflanguagetoestablishanatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.?E.g.Greetings,Farewells,andCommentsontheweather,etc.F、Therecreationalfunction（娱乐功能）Theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit–suchasababy‘sbabblingorachanter’schanting.G、Metalingualfunction(元语言功能)Metalingualfunction：ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself,talkingabouttalkandthinkingaboutthinking.–Tobehonest;onsecondthought;totellyouthetruth;asamatteroffact;thatistosay;–Suchexpressionsareusedmostfrequentlywhenwewanttoexpatiatethemeaningofformerclausesinanotherwayinargumentation.?Itmakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive(自我反身性)考点4：MainbranchesofLinguistics(考查定义！！！)?1.Sound→phonetics语音?2.Sounds→phonology音系学?3.Word→morphology形态学?4.Words/sentence→syntax句法学?5.Meaning→semantics语义学?6.Meaninginacontext→pragmatics语用学（languageinuse）Macrolinguistics（微观语言学）Psycholinguistics心里语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学考点5：distinctionsinlinguisticsA、Descriptivevs.Prescriptive描述性与规定性PeoplesayX.Descriptive（Todescribethelinguisticfactsobserved）Don’t’sayX.Prescriptive（Tolaydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehavior）ModernlinguisticsismostlyDescriptive.现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象TraditionEnglishbelongstoPrescriptive.古代英语则有许多条条框框B、Synchronicvs.diachronic共时性与历时性（判断题）Asynchronic(共时的)description,thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime,takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation(staticstate).?AGrammarofModernGreek;?TheStructureofShakespeare’sEnglish?EnglishExamined:TwoCenturiesofCommentontheMother-Tongue.?ProteanShape:AStudyinEighteenth-centuryVocabularyandUsage.?TheCategoriesandTypesofPresent-DayEnglishWord-Formation.Diachronic(历时的):thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.(dynamicstate)?Pejorative(轻蔑语)SenseDevelopmentinEnglish?PejorativeSenseDevelopmentinEnglish.C、Langue&parole语言和言语Langue(language):说话者的语言能力thegeneralizedrulesoflanguageParole(speaking):语言上的实际表现theapplicationofrulesD、CompetenceandperformanceCompetence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage(语言能力)Performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcrete