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ReviewNatureandCulture•Nature:whatisbornandgrowsorganically•Culture:theresultofhumaninterventioninthebiologicalprocessofnature.例如：Beauty→culture→aspecificmeaninghumanimposedontheobjectsinnatureTheLinguisticSign•sign=mark+concept•Signifier（能指）red•Signified（所指）stop•Lover=情人•Highschool=高中•servicestation=加油站•Restroom=公用厕所，洗手间•Busboy=餐馆洗碗工•Goldbrick=懒人•Busybody=爱管闲事的人NamesoflegislativeinstitutionChineseEnglish国会Parliament英国Congress（美国）Diet（日本）Dumas（俄罗斯）TermstoshowpositionjustbelowthehighestrankChineseEnglishExamples副（职）vicevice-chairman,vice-presidentassociateassociateprofessor,associatedirectorassistantassistantmanager,assistantsecretarydeputydeputydirector,deputychief-of-stafflieutenantLieutenant[lef'tenənt;lu:'t-]governor,lieutenantgeneralunderundersecretary(ofState,U.S.)Languageandculture：•Languageexpressesculturalreality.•(称呼，敬语,谦辞，恭维，委婉，禁忌……)•Languageembodiesculturalreality.•(bodylanguage,stylisticdifferences,socialetiquette)•Languagesymbolizesculturalreality.•(againstLinguisticandculturalimperialism)1.Addressing（称呼）Infamily:Chinese：Termsofkinship:叔叔、婶婶、舅舅、舅妈、伯伯、伯母、姑姑、姑丈English：UsenamedirectlyexceptMom,Dad(grandmaandgrandpasometimes).Auntie/uncle+givenname；BrotherJim,SisterMarry(inchurch)；嫂子=sister-in-law?(nottoaddressothers)Insociallife：•Chinese:•Lastname+title:林经理，黄经理•Junior/Senior+lastname:小朱，老李•English:•BureauDirectorSmith？ManagerHuang？•Doctor-,Judge-,Prof.(-),Mayor,President•CaptainJohnsonratherthanCompanyCommanderJohnson•AdmiralBenjaminratherthanFleetCommanderBenjamin古代女子对丈夫的8个雅称：•1.良人：古人妻子称自己的丈夫为良人；丈夫亦称自己的妻子为良人•2.郎：为了避免称呼“良人”的不便•3.郎君：单音节词有点太甜腻，于是人们就在“郎”字后面加“君”•4.官人：宋代，宫廷出现了“官家”这一词，平民百姓中有了“官人”这一说•5.老爷：大户人家对老公的尊称•6.外人：丈夫对妻子称“内人”，妻子对丈夫称“外人”，外人一词最早出现在宋代•7.相公：在京剧、越剧、黄梅戏中经常听到•8.先生：近代以来，也有称“丈夫”，用“先生”称“丈夫”，文雅而又带有仰慕尊崇的意思，至今在很多场合还在广泛使用2.Honorifics（敬语）：•令：令尊，令堂•惠：惠临，惠顾，惠存。•垂：垂问，垂询，垂念。•赐：赐教，赐膳，赐复（请别人给自己回复）。•请：请问，请教。•高：高见，高论，高足（徒弟），高寿，高就。•华：华翰（信件），华诞，华厦。•贤：贤弟、贤侄等。•奉：奉送，奉还，奉劝，奉陪。Englishhonorifics•IntheEnglishlanguage,anEnglishhonorificisatitleprefixingaperson'sname,e.g.:Miss,Ms.,Mr,Sir,Mrs,DrandLord.Theyarenotnecessarilytitlesorpositionsthatcanappearwithouttheperson'sname,asinthePresident,theEarl.•Ontheotherhand,honorificalsomeansComplimentaryClose.•Usedinpairs:•“DearSir”or“DearMadam”“Yoursfaithfully”•“DearMr.Smith”or“DearMrs.Brown”“Yourssincerely”•“Yourstruly”,“Sincerely（yours）”,“Verytrulyyours”(widelyusedinAmericanEnglish)•“Yoursaffectionately”,“Yoursrespectfully”areoutofdate.•Chinesecounterpart:“谨上”•“Bestwishes”,“Yoursever”,“love”betweenordinarypeople.3.self-depreciatoryexpressions∕self-denigrating/self-depreciating（谦辞）•“家”：家父、家尊、家严、家君。•“舍”：舍弟，舍妹，舍侄，舍亲。•“小”：小弟，小儿，小女，小店。•“老”：老粗，老朽，老脸，老身。(敬：您老，老周）•“敢”：敢问，敢请，敢烦。•“愚”：愚兄，愚见。•“拙”：拙笔，拙著、拙作，拙见。•“敝”：敝人，敝姓，敝处，敝校。•“鄙”：鄙人，鄙意，鄙见。•赞人见解说高见•陪伴朋友说•请人勿送说•与人相见说•仰慕已久说•向人询问说•求人办事说•请改文章说•得人帮助说•身体不适说•送人照片说•赞人见解说•自己住家说•请人谅解说•迎接客人说•客人入座说•中途先走说•看望别人说•无暇陪客说•欢迎购买说•问人姓氏说•长期未见说•请人协助说•麻烦别人说•接受好意说•祝人健康说•看望别人说•希望照顾说•请人赴约说•需要考虑说•言行不妥•宾客来到说•等候客人说•归还原主说•问人住址说•求人帮忙说•请人解答说•求人方便说•求人指点说•向人祝贺说•男子年龄说•老人年龄说•女子年龄说•请人接受说•送人远行说•对方来信说•无法满足说•慰问他人说•没能迎接说•临分别时说•不敢当——self-depreciatoryexpressioninChinese•Answertoapolitecomment:Thankyou.•Answertoarequestlike“pleasegivemesomeadvice”:I’llbegladto./I’mhonored,butI’mnotsureI’mtherightperson.•Answertoapraiselike“you’reoneofthetopscholars(authorities)inthefield.”:Notreally./I’mflattered.•Answertoacommentlike“That’samagnificentspeech.Ifounditverystimulating”:That’sverykindofyoutosayso./Thankyou.4.Euphemism（委婉语）ofdeath•passaway去世了•togowest归西了•tickthebucket翘辫子•turnupone’stoes长眠•togotosleep见阎王•tobenomore吹灯了•tocloseone’seyes闭眼•tolaydownone’slife没了，不在了•toexpire去见老祖宗•tobreatheone’slast了结尘缘•toendone’sday谢世•topaythedebtofnature长谢，长辞•Joinone’sancestors大归•天子死曰“崩”，诸侯曰“薨”，大夫曰“卒”，士曰“不禄”，庶人曰“死”。《礼记·曲礼下》•“崩”referstothedeathofemperors;•“薨”referstothedeathofdukes,princes,princessesorconcubines;•“卒”referstothedeathofseniorofficials;•“不禄”referstothedeathofordinaryofficials;•“死”isusedtodescribethedeathofordinarypeople.•garbagecollector(垃圾清运工)•sanitationengineer(公共卫生工程师)•domestichelp（家政助理）5.Taboo–Euphemism（禁忌-委婉）•停尸间太平间•丧事白喜事•棺材寿木•坟墓寿穴•死人穿的衣服（裹尸布）寿衣Eoriginatedfromhierarchicaltaboos嫦娥—姮娥（汉文帝刘恒）雉鸡-野鸡（吕雉）玄武门-神武门（康熙-玄烨）Eoriginatedfromreligioustaboos“theBigD”=theDevil“theSavior,Creator,…”=theGod•即将死亡：行将就木∕弥留之际•死亡之后：百年之后∕千秋之后•正常死亡：寿终正寝∕与世长辞•意外死亡：山高水低∕三长两短•帝王之死：千秋万岁∕宫车晏驾•平民之死：命归黄泉∕撒手人寰•美女之死：香消玉殒∕珠沉璧碎•英雄之死：英勇就义∕为国捐躯•贤人之死：哲人其萎∕兰催玉折Taboo–poor•“拮据”、“手头紧”、“囊中羞涩”•“badlyoff(短缺的),lesswelloff(不太宽裕的),indigent(缺少钱物的),downonone’sluck(时运不济）,hardupformoney(缺钱),indifficulty(处于困境).•have-nots(不富有的人),amanofmodestmeans(财产不多的人),negativesaver(积蓄为负值的人)•negativeincometax(美国对收入低于生活标准的个人或家庭的补助也被称作“税”，即“逆所得税”•developingcountriesorthethirdworld,lessdevelopedcounties•money=阿堵物=孔方兄Taboo–old•seniorcitizen,peopleinadvancedyears,elderlypeople,thirdage,tofeelone’sage,mature•“养老院”:aresthome（休养所）,aprivatehospital,anursinghomeSwearwords(脏话)：•Chinese：TMD•English:JesusChrist!HolyMary!Sonofabitch!（moreoffensive）Damn!Damnit!Hell!6.花卉、颜色、数字、动物花卉(flowers)：•Rhodora杜鹃花：InEnglish-----symbolofbeauty.InChinese---sadnessDaffodils水仙花：InChines