批评性与评价系统-Discourse-and-Culture

DiscourseandCultureDefinitionofCulture•Roughlyspeaking,culturecanbedefinedasthedepositofknowledge,beliefs,values,andattitudesagroupofpeopleshare.Threequestionsareofspecialimportanceindiscoursestudies.•1.Canwedetectculturevaluesfromdiscourse?•2.Ifso,whatcandiscoursetellusabouthowpeopleareinfluencedbyculture?•3.Isitpossibletochangeculturalvaluebychangingdiscourse?TheSapir-WhorfHypothesis•“languageisnotonlyaninstrumentforcommunicationbutthelanguagesystemalsocreatesschemataforanalyzingourworld.Ithasraisedmanyviolentandsometimeschaoticdiscussionsabouttherelationbetweenlanguageandworldview.•TheSapir-WhorfHypothesisisoftencalledthe“linguisticrelativityprinciple”,whichmeansthatlinguisticdescriptionsofrealityarealwaysrelative.CriticalDiscourseAnalysis•Itisaperspectivewhichstudiestherelationshipbetweendiscourseeventsandsociopoliticalandculturalfactorsespeciallythewaydiscourseisideologicallyinfluencedby,andcanitselfinfluencepowerrelationsinsociety.Thebasicassumptionisthattherelationshipbetweentheformandcontentofdiscourseisnotarbitrary.Therearestrongconnectionsbetweenlinguisticstructureandsocialstructure,totheextentthatlinguisticmeaningisinseparablefromideologyE.ga.NUSregretsfuryoverJoseph.•b.StudentleaderscondemninsulttoKeithJoseph.•c.Studentschiefs“regret”attackonSirKeith.•(ThreeheadlinesappearedinTheObserver,TheSundayTimesandTheSundayTelegraph.)TheAimofCDA•Theaimofthiskindofanalysisisnotonlytodetectmanipulationanddiscriminationbutalsotounderstandtheessenceofthesesocietalproblems.Inthiscriticalviewdiscourseanalysismusthavetheaimofempoweringpowerlessgroupsorminorities.Infact,discourseisseenasaformofsocialactionorapoliticalactthatcanbecriticized.•CriticalDiscourseAnalysispaysmuchattentiontopowerrelationsandideology,whichareprecipitatedindiscourse,andforcethereaderorlistenertoperceiverealityinaspecific,biasedway•Discourseisseenasaconstitutivefactorofsocialrelationsandbeliefsystems.Thisviewisbasedonthesocio-semioticapproachinwhichlanguageperformsnotonlytheideationalfunctionofrepresentingtheworldandthetextualfunctionofrelatingdiscourseandcontext,butalsotheinterpersonalfunctionofenactingsocialidentitiesandrelations.•Twoshortexamplesconcerningracism.•(1)Britaininvadedbyanarmyofillegals•Britainisbeingswampedbyatideofillegalimmigrantssodesperateforajobthattheywillworkforapittance(…)slavingbehindbars,cleaninghotelroomsandworkinginkitchens(…)•(2)(FromaSouthAfricannewspaperaboutablackstudentdemonstration.)•ExactlyhowandwhyastudentprotestbecauseakillerriotmaynotbeknownuntiltheconclusionofanelaborateinquirythatwillbecarriedoutbyJusticePetrusCillie,JudgePresidentoftheTransvaal.Gender•Thestudyofgenderanddiscoursehasexpandedenormouslyduringthelastdecades.Manyresearcherstrytoanalyzethedifferencebetweenmenandwomenininteractionorinrepresentationinverbalmaterial.Manyotherresearcherstrytofindevidenceforthedominanceofmenasaclassoverwomen,ortoputitinamorenuancedfashion,thattherelationshipbetweenmenandwomencanresultindominanceinconversationeveniftheindividualmandoesnothavetheintentiontodominate.Thedifferenceandthedominancetheoryhavestimulatedmuchresearch.•Inanalyzingdiscourseitisnotdifficulttofindsuchdifferences,forexamplethatwomenusemoremitigateddiscourseandback-channelelements(hm,ohyeah,etc),andthatmenarenotfocusedonverbalizingtheirfeelingsandthattheyoftendisplaymanchobehavior.Analyzingisonething,butinterpretingisanother.•Intheliteratureongenderanddiscourseuptonowtherehasbeennostrongsupportfortheclaimthatsuchdifferencesareonlycausedbygender.Therearesomanyotherpsychologicalandsociologicalfactorsinthecomplexprocessofproducingdiscourse,thatitseemsalmostimpossibletorelateaphenomenononlytogendertothedominantbehaviorofmen.•Itisoftenassumedthatwomenfillmoreverbalspaceinconversationandthattheyinterruptmorefrequentlythanmen,notonlyinback-channelbehaviorbutalsointakingthefloor.•Whatcanbeseenasaninterruptioncanalsobeseenasproofofinvolvement.Racism•Racismisusuallydefinedasaprejudiceorstereotypicalbeliefthatdiscriminatesagainstaminoritygroup(however,notnecessarilyofanotherrace)oragroupwithlessstatusthanthegroupinpower.•Racismisusuallymixedwithethnicismandxenophobia.DiscriminationcansaysinsevenD’s:dominance,differentiation,distance,diffusion,diversion,depersonalizationanddestruction.•becomemanifest,asVanDijk(1984)•Discriminatorydiscoursestrategies(Flowerdew,LiandTran,2002)•Negativeotherpresentation•Scaretactics•Blamingthevictim•Delegitimation•1.Negativeotherpresentation•Theminorityreceivednegativeattributioninaschemeof“positiveus”and“negativethem”.•Peoplearebecominglesstoleranttowardstheimmigrantsandregardthemaslesseducatedandhygienic,accordingtoasurvey(…)•2.Scaretactics•theextensiveattentiontotheallegedthreatbytheminoritytotheprivilegesofthedominantgroup.•Thearrivalofthousandsofmigrantchildrencouldhavea“seriousandadverseimpact”oneducationforHongKongStudents..•3.Blamingthevictim•Accusingaminoritygroupofcausingbaddevelopment•GovernmenteconomistTangKwong-yiusaidmassimmigrationwould“pulldownthestandardofliving,wagelevels,”pushupunemploymentandthinoutresour