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1Chapter1Introduction语言学的定义：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.问题：Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage?→Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Whatthelinguisthastodo“first,then,but”:①toobserveandcollectlanguagefactsandgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.②toformulatesomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.③tocheckthehypothesesthusformedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)问题:Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?→phonetics（语音学）→thestudyofsounds→phonology（音位学）→studyhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaning→morphology（形态学）→studythewayinwhichsymbolsormorphemesarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.→syntax（句法学）→thestudyofrulesofformingsentences→semantics（语义学）→thestudyofmeaning→pragmatics（语用学）→thecontextoflanguageuseSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：Thestudiesofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：RelatethestudyoflanguagetopsychologyAppliedlinguistics（应用语言学）：Inanarrowsenseitreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（theSwisslinguistF.deSaussure——CourseinGeneralLinguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（theAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky）⑥traditionalgrammar（传统语法）/modernlinguistics（现代语言学）2问题：inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?①linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.②modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.③modernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.问题：Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronic(不考虑历史演进的,限于一时的)approachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronic(探求现象变化的,历时的)one.Becauseitisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsoflanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.问题：Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Andlinguists’dataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardedasauthentic.语言的定义：Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）②productivity能产性，创造性Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）③duality双层性Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性⑥interchangeability互换性⑦convention约定性Functionsoflanguage：三大主要功能：3ThedescriptivefunctionTheexpressivefunctionThesocialfunctionRomanJacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speakeraddresser→emotive感情功能②addressee→conative意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic诗学功能⑤contact→phaticcommunion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic元语言功能Otherfunctions:①phaticfunction问候功能②informativef.信息功能③interrogativef.询问功能④expressivef.表达功能⑤evocativef.感染功能⑥directivef.指令功能⑦performativef.行使（权力）功能M.A.K.Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/socialrelationships）③textual问题：HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebySaussure,langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable;itdoesnotchangefrequently,whileparolevariesfrompeopletopeople,andfromsituationtosituation.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceproposedbytheAmericanlinguistsChomsky,competenceisadealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andtheperformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Imperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactors.Saussuremakesthisdistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Inhisopinion,paroleissimpleamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andthatlinguisticsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperform