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Chapter2SpeechSoundsThedefinitionofphonetics&phonologyPhoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemslanguages.Distinction:Thefirstfocusesonchaoswhilethesecondfocusesonorder.ⅠHowspeechsoundsaremade?A.Speechorgans1.3cavitiespharynxoralcavitynasalcavity2.vocalfoldsapart:voicelessClose:voicedClosetightly:glottalstop3.uvulaB.TheIPAThefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（theIPAchart）waspublishedinAugust,1888.ⅡConsonantsandvowels1.DefinitionConsonantsareproduced“byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction”.Avowelisproducedwithoutsuch“stricture”sothat“airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose”.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.2.Threefactorstodescribethefeaturesofconsonants1)Voicing:voiced&voiceless2)Mannerofarticulation:Itreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:(a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;(b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;(c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.Classificationaccordingtomannersofarticulationstop/plosivefricativelateraltap/flapnasalapproximanttrillaffricate3)placeofarticulation:Itreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfold.Classificationaccordingtoplaceofarticulationbilabialdentalpostalveolarpalataluvularglottallabiodentalalveolarretroflexvelarpharyngea3.Vowels1)cardinalvowel:Thecardinalvowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.2)Classificationofvowelstheheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tenseVs.laxorlongVs.short)lip-rounding(roundedVs.unrounded)ⅢFromphoneticstophonology1.Coarticulation:Whensimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Twotypesofcoarticulation1)AnticipatorycoarticulationIfthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.2)PerseverativecoarticulationIfthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation.2.Phone:Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationarephones.Phoneme:It’saunitofexplicitsoundcontrast.Iftwosoundsinalanguagemakeacontrastbetweentwodifferentwords,theyaresaidtobedifferentphnemes.Minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwowordsarecalledminimalpair.Allophone:Variantsofthesamephonemes.Iftwoormorephoneticallydifferentsoundsdonotmakeacontrastinmeaning,theyaresaidtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.ⅣPhonologicalProcess,PhonologicalRulesandDistinctiveFeatures1.Assimilation:Itisaprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicofaneighboringsound.Twopossibilitiesofassimilation1)regressiveassimilation:ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.2)Progressiveassimilation:Itistheconverseprocessinwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound.2.DistinctiveFeaturesTheideaofdistinctivefeatureswasfirstdevelopedbRomanJacobsoninthe1940s.ⅤSuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalsaresyllable,stress,toneandintonation.1.Syllableonsetrhymenucleuscoda2.MOP(maximalonsetprinciple)Whenthereisachoicealsowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.3.StressItreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.4.IntonationIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.5.Tone:asetoffall-risepatternsaffectingthemeaningsofindividualwordsSupplementarticulatoryphonetics:isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.acousticphonetics:isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.auditoryphonetics:isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.