语用学Chapter-3--Presupposition陈新仁何自然何伟

ChapterThreePresupposition2Contents•I.DefinitionofPresupposition•II.PropertiesofPresupposition•III.Presuppositionandprojection•IV.Presuppositionandentailment•V.Typesofpresuppositions•VI.Functionsofpresupposition3I.DefinitionofPresupposition(1)Sharedassumptions(PeterGrundy,1995)(2)Backgroundassumptionsagainstwhichthemainimportofanutteranceisassessed.TherelationissomethinglikethefigureandgroundinGestaltpsychology:thefigureofanutteranceiswhatisassertedorwhatisthemainpointofwhatissaid,whilethegroundisthesetofpresuppositionsagainstwhichthefigureisassessed.4II.PropertiesofPresupposition1.Associatedwithparticularaspectsofsurfacestructure,calledpresuppositiontrigger.Karttunencollectedthirty-onekindsofsuchtriggers.51.1Definitedescription(Strawson,1950,1952):the,this/that+NP,the3rdpersonpronoun,propernouns,possessive+nJohnsawthemanwithtwoheads.Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads.1.2Factiveverbsoradjectivephrase(Kiparsky&Kiparsky,1971):regret,realize,know,glad,proud,sorry,sadMartharegretsdrinkingJohn’shomebrew.MarthadrankJohn’shomebrew.6The“fact-S”structureThefactthatPatwantedtotalktoStephenisodd.ThefactofPat’swanting/havingwantedtotalktoStephenissignificant.ThatPatwantedtotalktoStephenisexciting.Pat’swanting/havingwantedtotalktoStephenmatterstome.It’stragicthatPatwantstotalktoStephen.HisfriendsregretsthefactthatPatwantedtotalktoStephen.AlltheexamplespresupposethatPatwanted(wants)totalktoStephen.71.3Implicativeverbs(Karttunen,1971b):manage,forget,happen,avoidJohnmanagedtoopenthedoor.Johntriedtoopenthedoor.1.4Change-of-stateverbs(Sellas,1954;Karttunen,1973):stop,finish,begin,leave,enter,turnJohnstoppedbeatinghiswife.Johnhadbeenbeatinghiswife.81.5Iterative:revisit,repeat,back,again,too,anothertime,fortheN-thtimeIndeliveringmysonfromme,Iburyasecondhusband.Iburiedmyhusband.Comeheremyvarlet,I’llunarmagain.Iunarmedonce.1.6Verbsofjudging(Fillmore,1971a):accuse,charge,criticizeAgathaaccusedJohnofplagiarism.(Agathathinks)plagiarismisbad.91.7Temporalclausesandphrases(Frege,1892(1952):before,after,sinceWhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewasasleep.Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics.DidyougetagoodlookatmyfacewhenItookyourpurse?Itookyourpurse.(IntheUSA,anaccusedmuggerchosetodefendhimselfbyputtingthisquestiontohisvictim.Andhewassentencedto10yearsinprison.)101.8Cleftsentences(Halvorsen,1978;Prince,1978;Atlas&Levinson,1981):Itis…that/who…,What…ItwasHenrythatkissedRose.SomeonekissedRose.WhatIneededwastwoextradays.Ineededsomething.111.9Implicitcleftswithstressedconstituents(Chomksy,1972)LinguisticswasinventedbyCHOMSKY!Someoneinventedlinguistics.1.10Comparisonsandcontrasts(Lakoff,1971)CarolisabetterlinguistthanBarbara.Barbaraisalinguist.121.11Non-restrictiverelativeclausesHillary,whoclimbedEverestin1953,wasthegreatestexplorerofourday.HillaryclimbedEverest.1.12CounterfactualconditionalsIfyouhadsentmeaChristmascardlastyear,Iwouldhavesentyouonethisyear.YoudidnotsendmeaChristmascardlastyear.131.13Questions(Katz,1972;Lyons,1977):Yes/noquestions;alternativequestions;WH-questionsIsthereaprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT?EitherthereisaprofessoroflinguisticsatMITorthereisn’t.IsNewcastleinEnglandorisitinAustralia?NewcastleisinEnglandorNewcastleisinAustralia.WhoistheprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT?SomeoneistheprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT.142.“Constancyundernegationtest”(Levinson,1983,p.185)Itisoftenclaimedthatpresuppositioncansurvivenegation.15Hersuccessormanagedtowintheelectionthatfollowed.Thispresupposesthathersuccessortriedorthatwinningtheelectionwasnoteasy.Hersuccessordidn’tmanagedtowintheelectionthatfollowed.Thisstillpresupposethathersuccessortriedorthatwinningtheelectionwasnoteasy.16ThePrimeMinisterrememberedtokeeparecordofherinstructionsatthetimearmswereexportedtoIraq.ThispresupposesthatthePrimeMinistershouldhavekeptarecordofherinstructions.ThePrimeMinisterdidn’tremembertokeeparecordofherinstructionsatthetimearmswereexportedtoIraq.Andthesamepresuppositioniskeptdespiteofthenegation.173.Defeasibleincertaindiscoursecontextsorcertainintra-sententialcontexts.Suecriedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.Suefinishedherthesis.Suediedbeforeshefinishedherthesis.Suefinishedherthesis.?18SupposetheconversationalparticipantsmutuallyknowthatJohnfailedtogetadoctoralcourse,wesay:AtleastJohnwon’thavetoregretthathedidaPhD.194.Suspendablebytheuseofif-clauseJohndidn’tcheatagain,ifeverhedid.20III.PresuppositionandprojectionProjectionhastodowithverbswhichtakecomplements,andcomplexsentences.Presuppositioncontainedinasimplestructuremaynotsurviveinacomplexstructurecontainingthatsimplestructure.21I(donot)regretthatIwanttomurdermyneighbor.Ibelievemyneighborisgoingdeaf.Idon’tknowthatmywifefanciesthemilkman.IfJohndoeslinguistics,hewillregretdoingit.22IV.PresuppositionandentailmentThetwothieveswerecaughtagainlastnight.Thetwothieveshadbeencaughtbefore.Thetwothieveswerenotcaughtagainlastnight.Thetwothieveshadbeencaughtbefore.23AstatementApresupposesanotherstatementBif(a)IfAistrue,thenBistrue(b)IfAisfalse,thenBistrueAsemanticallyentailsBifeverysituationthatmakesAtrue,makes