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Chapter6Textualequivalence:cohesionInthischapter,weresumediscussionoftranslationdifficultiesandstrategiesattheleveloftextbylookingatcohesion,thesecondfeatureoftextorganizationwhichwasmentionedattheendofChapter4.Cohesionisthenetworkoflexical,grammatical,andotherrelationswhichprovidelinksbetweenvariouspartsofatext.Cohesionisasurfacerelation;itconnectstogethertheactualwordsandexpressionsthatwecanseeorhear.HallidayandHasonidentify5maincohesivedevicesinEnglish:reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.6.1.ReferenceThetermreferenceistraditionallyusedinsemanticsfortherelationshipwhichholdsbetweenawordandwhatinpointstointherealworld.Insteadofdenotingadirectrelationshipbetweenwordsandextra-linguisticobjects,referenceislimitedheretotherelationshipofidentitywhichholdsbetweentwolinguisticexpressions.Reference,inthetextualratherthanthesemanticsense,occurswhenthereaderhastoretrievetheidentityofwhatisbeingtalkedaboutbyreferringtoanotherexpressionintheimmediatecontext.Theresultingcohesionliesinthecontinuityofreference,wherebythesamethingentersintothediscourseasecondtime.Referenceisadevicewhichallowsthereader/hearertotraceparticipants,entities,events,etc,inatext.OneofthemostcommonpatternsofestablishingchainsofreferenceinEnglishandanumberofotherlanguagesistomentionaparticipantexplicitlyinthefirstinstance,andthenuseapronounreferbacktothesameparticipantintheimmediatecontext.Therelationshipofreferencemaybeestablishedsituationally:(分析如下)Forexample,agivenpronounmayrefertoanentitywhichispresentinthecontextofsituationratherthaninthesurroundingtext.Thefirst-andsecond-personpronounsaretypicalexamplesinthattheydonotreferbacktoanominalexpressioninthetextbuttothespeakerandhearer(writerandreader)respectively.Third-personpronounstypicallyreferbackorforwardtoanominalexpressioninthetextbutmayalsobeusedtorefertoanentitywhichispresentintheimmediatephysicalormentalcontextofsituation.Patternsofreferenceisalsoknownasanaphora.Fox(1986)examinedpatternsofreferencein3genresofAmericanEnglish:spontaneousconversation,writtenexpositoryproseandwrittenfast-pacedpopularnarratives.6.2.SubstitutionandellipsisUnlikereference,substitutionandellipsisaregrammaticalratherthansemanticrelationships.Insubstitution,anitem/itemsisreplacedbyanotheritem/items.Ellipsisinvolvestheomissionofanitem.Inotherwords,inellipsis,anitemisreplacedbynothing.Substitutionandellipsisarepurelygrammaticalrelationswhichholdbetweenlinguisticformsratherthanbetweenlinguisticformsandtheirmeanings.Therearedifferentdevicesindifferentlanguagesforcreatingtextureandthatatexthangstogetherbyvirtueofthesemanticandstructuralrelationshipsthatholdbetweenitselements.6.3.ConjunctionConjunctioninvolvestheuseofformalmarkerstorelatesentences,clausesandparagraphstoeachother.Unlikereference,substitution,andellipsis,theuseofconjunctiondoesnotinstructthereadertosupplymissinginformationeitherbylookingforitelsewhereinthetextorbyfillingstructuralslot.Instead,conjunctionsignalsthewaythewriterwantsthereadertorelatethatisabouttobesaidtowhathasbeensaidbefore.Anumberofpointsneedtobeborneinmindhere:①Thesameconjunctionmaybeusedtosignaldifferentrelations,dependingonthecontext②Theserelationscanbeexpressedbyavarietyofmeans;theuseofaconjunctionisnottheonlydeviceforexpressingatemporalorcausalrelation③Conjunctiverelationsdonotjustreflectrelationsbetweenexternalphenomena,butmayalsobesetuptoreflectrelationswhichareinternaltothetextorcommunicativesituation.Forthepurposesoftranslation,ittakesmoresensetotakeabroaderviewofcohesionandtoconsideranyelementcohesiveaslongasitsignalsaconjunctive-typerelationbetweenpartsofatext,whetherthesepartsaresentences,clauses(dependentorindependent),orparagraphs.Theuseofconjunctionprovidesaninsightintothewholelogicofdiscourse.Englishgenerallypreferstopresentinformationinrelativelysmallchunksandtosignaltherelationshipbetweenthesechunksinunambiguousways,usingawidevarietyofconjunctionstomarksemanticrelationsbetweenclauses,sentences,andparagraphs.Englishalsoreliesonahighlydevelopedpunctuationsystemtosignalbreaksandrelationsbetweenchunksofinformation.Somegenresaregenerallymoreconjunctivethanothersandthateachgenrehasitsownpreferencesforcertaintypesofconjunction.Religionandfictionusemoreconjunctionsthanscienceandjournalism.Religiondisplaysaparticularpreferencefornegativeadditiveconjunctions.SmithandFiawleyexplainthisfeaturebysuggestingthatthehighpercentageofnegativeadditiveconjunctions...indicatesatendencytowardfalsification,themostconsistentmethodofproof.Whetheratranslationconformstothesource-textpatternsofcohesionortriestoapproximatetotarget-languagepatternswilldependinthefinalanalysisonthepurposeofthetranslationandtheamountoffreedomthetranslatorfeelsentitledtoinrechunkinginformationand/oralteringsignalsofrelationsbetweenchunks.Followingsource-languagenormsmayinvolveminimalchangeinoverallmeaning.Ontheotherhand,noticeabledeviationfromtypicaltarget-languagepatternsofchunkinginformationandsignallingrelationsislikelytoresultinthesortoftextthatcaneasilybeidentifiedasatranslationbecauseitsound