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Chapter7PragmaticequivalenceWeneedtogetawayformthelinguisticorganizationandlookatreality,preciselybecausethatrealityisencodedinsituationsandtextsforthetranslatorandnotinlanguages.Thetextcannotbeconsideredasastaticspecimenoflanguage,butessentiallyastheverbalizedexpressionofanauthor'sintentionasunderstoodbythetranslatorasreader,whowhenrecreatesthiswholeforanotherreadershipinanotherculture.Inthischapterweconcludeourdiscussionoflanguageandtranslationwithabrieflookathowagiventextcomestomakesensetoagivenreadership.Here,wewillbeconcernedwiththewayutterancesareusedincommunicativesituationsandthewayweinterpretthemincontext,knownaspragmatics.Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaning,notasgeneratedbythelinguisticsystembutasconveyedandmanipulatedbyparticipantsinacommunicativesituation.Coherenceandimplicatureexplorethequestionofmakingsenseandinhighlightingareasofdifficultyincross-culturalcommunication.7.1.Coherence7.1.1.CoherenceVScohesionLikecohesion,coherenceisanetworkofrelationswhichorganizeandcreateatext:.cohesionisthenetworkofsurfacerelationswhichlinkswordsandexpressionstootherwordsandexpressionsinatext,andcoherenceisthenetworkofconceptualrelationswhichunderliethesurfacetext.Inthecaseofcohesion,stretchesoflanguageareconnectedtoeachother.Inthecaseofcoherence,theyareconnectedbyvirtueofconceptualormeaningdepdendenciesasperceivedbylanguageusers.Hoeysumsupthedifferencesbetweenthemasfollows:Wewillassumethatcohesionisapropertyofthetextandthatcoherenceisafacetofthereader'sevaluationofatext.Inotherwords,cohesionisobjective,capableinprincipleofautomaticrecognition,whilecoherenceissubjectiveandjudgementsconcerningitmayvaryfromreadertoreader.Wecouldsaythatcohesionisthesurfaceexpressionofcoherencerelations,thatitisadeviceformakingconceptualrelationsexplicit.Generallyspeaking,themerepresenceofcohesivemarkerscannotcreateacoherenttext;cohesivemarkershavetoreflectconceptualrelationswhichmakesense.Whatactuallygivestexturetoastretchoflanguageisnotthepresenceofcohesivemarkersbutourabilitytorecognizeunderlyingsemanticrelationswhichestablishingcontinuityofsense.Themainvalueofcohesivemarkersseemstobethattheycanbeusedtofacilitateandpossiblycontroltheinterpretationofunderlyingsemanticrelations.7.1.2.Iscoherenceafeatureoftextorsituation?Notextisinherentlycoherentorincoherent.Intheend,italldependsonthereceiver,andonhisabilityoninterprettheindicationspresentinthediscoursesothat,finally,hemanagestounderstanditinawaywhichseemscoherenttohim.Theabilitytomakesenseofastretchoflanguagedependsonthehearer'sofreader'sexpectationsandexperienceoftheworld.Thecoherenceofatextisaresultoftheinteractionbetweenknowledgepresentedinthetextandthereader'sownknowledgeandexperienceoftheworld.Evenasimplecohesiverelationofco-referencecannotberecognized,andthereforecannotbesaidtocontributetothecoherenceofatext.Blum-Kulka'sdefinitionofcoherenceasacovertpotentialmeaningrelationshipamongpartsofatext,madeovertbythereaderorlistenerthroughprocessesofinterpretationimpliesthatsheseesmeaning,orcoherenceasapropertyofaext,eventhoughitisonlyaccessiblethroughprocessesofinterpretation.Sinclair(personalcommunication)similarlystatesthatprocessessuchastherecallofpastexperienceandknowledgeoftheworld...arenotpartofthemeaningofatext,butpartofthehumanapparatusforworkingoutthemeaningofatext,whichagainsuggeststhatmeaningexistsintextsbutcanonlybeaccessedthroughvariousprocessesofinterpretationonthepartofthereader.Firthassertsthatmeaningisapropertyofthemutuallyrelevantpeople,things,eventsinthesituation.KirstenMalmkjaer(personalcommunication)doesnotaccepttheviewthatmeaningisintextandsuggestsinsteadthatmeaningariseinsituationinvolvinglanguage.Areader'sculturalandintellectualbackgrounddeterminehowmuchsensesheorhegetsoutofatext.Regardlessofwhethermeaningisapropertyoftextorsituation,coherenceisnotafeatureoftextassuchbutofthejudgementmadebyareaderonatext.Atranslatorhastotakeaccountoftherangeofknowledgeavailabletohisorhertargetreadersandoftheexpectationstheyarelikelytohaveabout.Wecanonlymakesenseofnewinformationintermsofourownknowledge,beliefs,andpreviousexperienceofbothlinguisticandnon-linguisticevents.7.2.Coherenceandprocessesofinterpretation:implicatureThedifferencebetweensupplementalinterpretationsandexplanatoryinterpretationsisthattheformerneverleadtotheexplicationofathematiccontinuity,whereasthelatterjustifythiscontinuity.Oneofthemostimportantnotionswhichhaveemergedintextstudiesinrecentyearsisthatofimplicature,whichreferstowhatthespeakermeansorimpliesratherthanwhatsheorheliterallysays.Gricesuggeststhataspeakercansignalanimpliedmeaningconventionallyandnon-conventionally.Tosignalanimpliedmeaningconventionally,aspeakerusesthetextualresourceswhichareconventionallyunderstoodtosignalcertainrelationshipsbetweenpropositions.Grammaticalstructureisanother.Gricesuggeststhatdiscoursehascertainimportantfeatures：forinstance,itisconnected;ithasapurpose;anditisaco-operativeeffort.Thesefeaturesgiverisetoageneralprincipleofcommunication,theCo-operativePrinciple(CP).Impliedmeaningwhichisnotsignalledconventionallyderivesfromth