Compulsory-Licensing(did经典)Evidence-from-the-Tradi

AmericanEconomicAssociationiscollaboratingwithJSTORtodigitize,preserveandextendaccesstoTheAmericanEconomicReview.(s):PetraMoserandAlessandraVoenaSource:TheAmericanEconomicReview,Vol.102,No.1(FEBRUARY2012),pp.396-427Publishedby:AmericanEconomicAssociationStableURL::25-01-201612:07UTCYouruseoftheJSTORarchiveindicatesyouracceptanceoftheTerms&ConditionsofUse,[e-mail]m114.212.73.119onMon,25Jan201612:07:15UTCAllusesubjecttoJSTORTermsandConditionsAmericanEconomicReview2012,102(1):396-427:EvidencefromtheTradingwiththeEnemyAcťByPetraMoserandAlessandraVoena*Compulsorylicensingallowsfirmsindevelopingcountriestopro-duceforeign-ownedinventionswithouttheconsentofforeignpat-entowners.ThispaperusesanexogenouseventofcompulsorylicensingafterWorldWarIundertheTradingwiththeEnemyActtoexaminetheeffectsofcompulsorylicensingondomesticinvention.Difference-indifferencesanalysesofnearly130,000chemicalinven-tionssuggestthatcompulsorylicensingincreaseddomesticinventionby20percent.(JELD45,L24,N42,031,034)Compulsorylicensingallowsfirmsindevelopingcountriestoproduceforeigninventionswithouttheconsentofforeignpatentowners.1CountriessuchasBrazil,Thailand,andIndiahaveusedthepolicytoprocurelife-savingdrugsformillionsofpatientsandareproposingitasameanstoaccessforeigntechnologiestocombatclimatechange.2Opponentsofcompulsorylicensing,however,fearthatthepolicymayreduceaccesstocriticalinnovationsthatareinventedabroad,asitweakensincentivesforforeignfirmstotransfernewtechnologiesintodevelopingcountries.Forexample,theUSpharmaceuticalcompanyMerckcriticizedBrazil'slicensingofitsHIVdrugefavirenzasanexpropriationofintellectualpropertywhichwillhurtpatientswhorequirenewlife-savingtherapies().*Moser:NBERandDepartmentofEconomics,StanfordUniversity,579SerraMall,Stanford,CA94705(e-mail:[e-mail]);Voena:HarvardKennedySchool,79JFKAvenue,Cambridge,MA02138(e-mail:[e-mail]).WethankDavidAutor,TimBresnahan,IainCockburn,GiacomoDeGiorgi,ChristinaGathmann,EricHilt,ToddNewman,TomNicholas,JoergOhmsted,AndreaPozzi,MikeScherer,GavinWright,andseminarparticipantsatArizona,Berkeley,ChicagoBooth,ISNIE,theNBER,andStanford,forhelp-fulcomments.WeowespecialthankstoRyanLampeforhelpinguscollecttheUSpatentdata,andKathrynSteenforsharingcopiesofarchivalrecords.ShaunHayesattheAmericanHeritageCenteroftheUniversityofWyominghelpedustoaccessthepersonalpapersoftheAlienPropertyCustodian.AdamTarhouni,EmilyRains,LeahKarlins,MarinaKutyavina,andStephanieLeeprovidedexcellentresearchassistance.PetraMoserthankstheNationalScienceFoundationforitsfinancialsupportthroughgrantSES0921859,andtheNBER'sGrouponInnovationPolicyandtheEconomyandtheKauffmanFoundationforfundingtheearlystagesofthisproject.AlessandraVoenaacknowledgesfinancialsupportthroughtheElyFellowshipatSIEPRandtheClaymanInstituteforGenderStudiesatStanford.ŤToviewadditionalmaterials,visitthearticlepageat*Ingeneral,TRIPSArt.31allowscompulsorylicensesafternegotiationsforvoluntarylicenseshavefailed.Incasesofemergency,TRIPSallowsgovernmentstograntcompulsorylicenseswithoutfirsttryingtonegotiate.TheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)DohaDeclarationof2001emphasizeddevelopingcountries'rightstoissuecompulsorylicenses:Eachmemberhastherighttograntcompulsorylicensesandthefreedomtodeterminethegroundsuponwhichsuchlicensesaregranted(WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1,Art.5.b).ThailandandBrazilhaveusedcompulsorylicensestoproduceantiretroviraleforAIDSpatientsandIndiahasindicatedplanstousecompulsorylicensingtocombatswineflu(Kremer2002;Galvão2002;Gostin2006;Steinbrook2007).396Thiscontentdownloadedfrom114.212.73.119onMon,25Jan201612:07:15UTCAllusesubjecttoJSTORTermsandConditionsVOL.102NO.1MOSERANDVOENA:COMPULSORYUCENSING397Policydebateshave,however,neglectedanimportantaspectofcompulsorylicensing:doescompulsorylicensingincreaseordiscouragedomesticinventionincountriesthatlicenseforeigntechnologies?Compulsorylicensingmaydiscouragedomesticinventionifaccesstoforeigninventionsatbelow-marketratesweakensincentivestodevelopalternativetechnologiesdomestically.Theabilitytoproduceforeigninventionscould,however,alsoenabledomesticfirmstoestablishtheirownindependentproduction,whichstrengthensincentivestoinvestincomplementaryresearchandskillsandcreatesopportunitiesforlearningbydoing(e.g.,Arrow1962;Stokey1988;IrwinandKlenow1994).Totestwhethercompulsorylicensingincreasesordecreasesdomesticinvention,wetakeadvantageofanexogenousepisode