50Things-about-British-History

Warming-upexercisesWhatdothedonkeyandtheelephantrepresentrespectively?Whatistheindicationofthepicture?1.Stonehenge2200BCStonehengeisaprehistoricmonumentlocatedintheEnglishcountyofWiltshire,about2.0miles(3.2km)westofAmesburyand8miles(13km)northofSalisbury.Oneofthemostfamoussitesintheworld,Stonehengeiscomposedofacircularsettingoflargestandingstonessetwithinearthworks.ItisatthecentreofthemostdensecomplexofNeolithicandBronzeAgemonumentsinEngland,includingseveralhundredburialmounds.[1]Archaeologistsbelievetheiconicstonemonumentwasconstructedanywherefrom3000BCto2000BC,asdescribedinthechronologybelow.Radiocarbondatingin2008suggestedthatthefirststoneswereerectedin2400–2200BC,[2]whilstanothertheorysuggeststhatbluestonesmayhavebeenerectedatthesiteasearlyas3000BC(seephase1below).Thesurroundingcircularearthbankandditch,whichconstitutetheearliestphaseofthemonument,havebeendatedtoabout3100BC.ThesiteanditssurroundingswereaddedtotheUNESCO'slistofWorldHeritageSitesin1986inaco-listingwithAveburyHengemonument.ItisanationallegallyprotectedScheduledAncientMonument.StonehengeisownedbytheCrownandmanagedbyEnglishHeritage,whilethesurroundinglandisownedbytheNationalTrust.[3][4]ArchaeologicalevidencefoundbytheStonehengeRiversideProjectin2008indicatesthatStonehengecouldpossiblyhaveservedasaburialgroundfromitsearliestbeginnings.[5]Thedatingofcrematedremainsfoundonthesiteindicatethatdepositscontainhumanbonematerialfromasearlyas3000BC,whentheinitialditchandbankwerefirstdug.SuchdepositscontinuedatStonehengeforatleastanother500years.[6]2.RomanInvasionandCivilisation43ADTheRomanconquestofBritainwasagradualprocess,beginningeffectivelyinAD43underEmperorClaudius,whosegeneralAulusPlautiusservedasfirstgovernorofBritannia.GreatBritainhadalreadyfrequentlybeenthetargetofinvasions,plannedandactual,byforcesoftheRomanRepublicandRomanEmpire.Incommonwithotherregionsontheedgeoftheempire,BritainhadenjoyeddiplomaticandtradinglinkswiththeRomansinthecenturysinceJuliusCaesar'sexpeditionsin55and54BC,andRomaneconomicandculturalinfluencewasasignificantpartoftheBritishlatepre-RomanIronAge,especiallyinthesouth.Between55BCandthe40sAD,thestatusquooftribute,hostages,andclientstateswithoutdirectmilitaryoccupation,begunbyCaesar'sinvasionsofBritain,largelyremainedintact.Augustuspreparedinvasionsin34BC,27BCand25BC.Thefirstandthirdwerecalledoffduetorevoltselsewhereintheempire,thesecondbecausetheBritonsseemedreadytocometoterms.[1]AccordingtoAugustus'sResGestae,twoBritishkings,DumnovellaunusandTincomarus,fledtoRomeassuppliantsduringhisreign,[2]andStrabo'sGeography,writtenduringthisperiod,saysthatBritainpaidmoreincustomsanddutiesthancouldberaisedbytaxationiftheislandwereconquered.[3]Bythe40sAD,thepoliticalsituationwithinBritainwasapparentlyinferment.TheCatuvellaunihaddisplacedtheTrinovantesasthemostpowerfulkingdominsouth-easternBritain,takingovertheformerTrinovantiancapitalofCamulodunum(Colchester),andwerepressingtheirneighbourstheAtrebates,ruledbythedescendantsofJuliusCaesar'sformerallyCommius.[4]CaligulaplannedacampaignagainsttheBritishin40,butitsexecutionwasbizarre:accordingtoSuetonius,hedrewuphistroopsinbattleformationfacingtheEnglishChannelandorderedthemtoattackthestandingwater.Afterwards,hehadthetroopsgatherseashells,referringtothemasplunderfromtheocean,duetotheCapitolandthePalace.[5]Modernhistoriansareunsureifthatwasmeanttobeanironicpunishmentforthesoldiers'mutinyorduetoCaligula'sderangement.CertainlythisinvasionattemptreadiedthetroopsandfacilitiesthatwouldmakeClaudius'invasionpossible3yearslater(e.g.alighthousewasbuiltbyCaligulaatBoulogne-sur-Mer,themodelfortheonebuiltsoonafter43atancientDover).3.StAugustineandChristianity597AugustineofCanterbury(circafirstthirdofthe6thcentury–probably26May604)wasaBenedictinemonkwhobecamethefirstArchbishopofCanterburyintheyear597.HeisconsideredtheApostletotheEnglishandafounderoftheEnglishChurch.[3]AugustinewasthepriorofamonasteryinRomewhenPopeGregorytheGreatchosehimin595toleadamission,usuallyknownastheGregorianmission,toBritaintoChristianizetheKingÆthelberhtoftheKingdomofKentfromhisnativeAnglo-Saxonpaganism.InalettertothepatriarchofAlexandriadetailingearlysuccessesofthemission,GregorywroteofhavingsentAugustineandhiscompanionstotheendsoftheearth.[4]KentwasprobablychosenbecauseitwasneartheChristiankingdomsinGaulandbecauseÆthelberhthadmarriedaChristianprincess,Bertha,daughterofCharibertItheKingofPariswhowasexpectedtoexertsomeinfluenceoverherhusband.BeforereachingKentthemissionarieshadconsideredturningbackbutGregoryurgedthemonand,in597,AugustinelandedontheIsleofThanetandproceededtoÆthelberht'smaintownofCanterbury.KingÆthelberhtconvertedtoChristianityandallowedthemissionariestopreachfreely,givingthemlandtofoundamonasteryoutsidethecitywalls.AugustinewasconsecratedbishopoftheEnglishandconvertedmanyoftheking'ssubjects,includingthousandsduringamassbaptismonChristmasDayin597.PopeGregorysentmoremissionariesin601,alongwithencouraginglettersandgiftsforthechurches,althoughattemptstopersuadethenativeCelticbishopstosubmittoAugustine'sauthorityfailed