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APPENDIXA:AUDIOSCRIPTSUnitOneChapter1Anthropology:TheEvolutionofHumanEndeavorAnthropology:TheStudyofHumanBeingsandTheirCreationsoA.OrientationListeningScriptTheGreekwordformanisanthroposandthewordanthropologyhasbeenintheEnglishlanguageforcenturies.Butjustwhatdoesthewordmean?Literallyanthropologymeansthestudyofman.How-ever,asBritishphilosopherAlfredNorthWhiteheadnoted,Itisawell-foundedhistoricalgeneralizationthatthelastthingtobediscoveredinanyscienceiswhatthescienceisreallyabout.AndasPaulBohannan,renownedanthropologist,pointedoutanumberofyearsago,Eachsciencethatdealswithpeoplehasitsowndefinitionsofhuman.AnEconomist,heexplains,definesahumanasachoice-makinganimal.Philosophersdefinemanasarationalizinganimal....Anthropologyattemptstobeall-inclusive-thestudyofhumanbehaviorinallplacesandthroughouttime.Itspecializesinthedescriptionofhumanistic,sci-entific,biological,historical,psychological,andsocialviewsofhumans.ToparaphraseBarbaraMiller'sstatementinhertextbook,CulturalAnthropology,thepopularimpressionofanthropologyisbasedmainlyonmoviesandtelevisionshowsthatdepictanthropologistsasadven-turersandheroes.SomedohaveadventuresanddiscovertreasuresinEgyptiantombsandelsewhere,butmostly,theirworkislessglam-orousandinvolvesrepetitiveandtediousactivities.Untilaroundthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,anthropologywasatermusedforallhumanists.Mylecturetodayexplainsthefieldsandbranchesofanthropology.We'regoingtobeginbystatingthatanthropologyisthestudyofhumanbehaviorinallplacesandatalltimes.Westerncivilizationtakescreditforthedevelopmentofanthropol-ogy,which,asamatteroffact,wasarelativelylatescience.EarlierGreekandRomanphilosophersweremoreinterestedinspeculatingabouttheidealsocietyratherthandescribingthoseknowntothem.AftertheonsetoftheAgeofExploration,whichincludedthediscoveryoftheAmericas,aswellastraveltootherdistantplaces,thestudyofnon-Westernpeoplebeganinearnest.Inmodernday,anthro-pologyisarecognizedsocialsciencewithtwobroadfieldsandseveralbranchesorsubfields.Thetwobroadfieldsarephysicalanthropologyandculturalanthropology.Letmegiveyouabriefdescriptionofeach.Physicalanthropologyisconcernedwiththedevelopmentofmanasamammal.Relatedsubjectsareanatomy,biology,andpaleontology.Physicalan-thropologistsstudytheevolutionofthehumanspecies.Onewaytheydothisisbythecomparativeanalysisoffossils-preservedremnants132APPENDIXAofoncellivingcreaturesandlivingprimates,whichincludehumanbeingsorHomosapiens.Commonfossilsareshells,bones,andmoldsorimprints.Thesearefoundburiedintheearthorpermanentlyfrozeninglaciers.Livingprimatesareanalyzedinordertostudythemechan-icsofevolutionandgeneticdifferencesamonghumanpopulations.Nextlet'stalkaboutculturalanthropology.Thisfieldisthestudyoflearnedbehaviorinhumansocieties.Mostculturalanthropologistslimitthemselvestoafewgeographicareas,forexample,MargaretMeadinSamoaandNewGuinea,andClydeKluckhohnwiththeNavajoIndiansintheSouthwesternUnitedStates.IshouldmentionthatKluckbohn'sworkMirrorforManisconsideredoneofthebestin-troductionstoanthropology.Culturalanthropologyandthescientificstudyofhumanculturewillbediscussedinmoredetailinournextlecture.Thesubfieldsofculturalanthropologyarearchaeology,linguis-tics,andethnography.Archaeologyisthestudyofdifferentculturesthroughmaterialsourcesratherthandirectinterviewsorobservationsofthegroupunderstudy.OneexampleofafamousarchaeologicalsitediscoveredinthepastcenturywasKingTut'sTombnearLuxor,Egypt,in1922.Linguistics,asyouprobablyknow,isthestudyoflanguageascom-municationamonghumans.Cultureislearnedandtransmittedprimarilythroughlanguage.Ethnographyisthesystematicdescriptionofhumansocieties,mostlybasedonfirsthandfieldwork.Basedonethnographies,anthro-pologistsprovideethnologiesorexplanationsofthebehaviorofdiffer-entpeoples.Asecondsubfieldofethnographyissocialanthropology.Socialanthropologyisconcernedwithpeopleassocialbeings.Arelatedsubjectis,ofcourse,sociology.Letmealsomentionbrieflypsychologicalanthropology,whichdealswithhumanpersonalityandfeelings.Thesearegreatlyinflu-encedbyanindividual'sbiologicalandmentalcharacteristics,aswellasphysicalsurroundingsandpersonalexperiences.Relatedsubjectsarepsychologyandpsychiatry.Itisimportanttonotethatthereareseveraluniversalscommonamongallsocieties;forexample,thebasicsimilaritiesinhumanbiol-ogyandtheexistenceoftwosexes.Anotheroftheseiseducation-eitherformalorinformalorboth.Educationisnecessarytoprovidetheyoungwiththeskillsandattitudesneededtocarryonasadults.So,youmightask,whatarethepracticalapplicationsforsuchabroadfield?Theansweristhatanthropologyhelpsusplanthefutureandhelpsuscontributetothesolutionofhumanproblems.Thisnewestareaofthestudyofmanisappliedanthropology.Formerly,anthropologywaslimitedtotheacademicfield.Anthropologistswereteachersormuseumcurators.Butforthepastseveraldecadeslargenumbersofanthrograd-uateshavebeenemployedinfieldssuchasurbanplanningandadminis-tration,healthcare,andinternationaldevelopment.Mostimportantisthatalthoughanthropologistshavetakenupthetaskofdocumentingtheprocessesandchangesofculturespastandpresent,theyalsoprovidethenecessaryins