创新的民主化-MIT

1··-······23——4•··••••·•····•••··•···•·••••·LudwigMaximiliansUniversitätHabilitandenPitney-Bowes•JimEuchner3M·•RogerLaceyIFF•JohnWrightNortelNetworks•DaveRichardsVerizon•JohnMartinApacheFoundation•BenHydeCollabNet•BrianBehlendorfLeadUserConcepts•JohnChurchill•SusanHiestandJessie•ChristianaDagmar•EricJames————••ArthurvonHippel————56•LarryStanley•SonaliShah1978•JürgenHonscheid——19741975•MikeHorgan•,1019987user——————～/Morrisonetal.2004Franke&vonHippel2003a1.11.1AttractivenessofinnovationsEstimatedOLScurveInnovationLeadusernessofusers1.18Y2.06+0.57xYxR2=0.281p=0.002n=30Franke&vonHippel2003Franke&vonHippel2003b19—123JensenMeckling1976——————9-n1n————Herteletal.2003Lakhani&Wolf2005——Ogawa199810————————Raymond1999Allen1983Later&Nuvolari2004vonHippel&Finkelstein1979Lim2000MorrisonRoberts&vonHippel2000Franke&Shah2003Henkel2003Linux——Raymond1999-11Franke&Shah2003————••—vonHippel&vonKrogh200330patentthickets——/Shapiro2001Benkler2002——Varian2002Lessig200112CAD——1/2/3——————13——3M3M8——1.4618003M50Lilienetal.20022003150————————2.110402.181CADPC-CAD13624.3%Urban&vonHippel198827436%Herstatt&vonHippel19923OPAC26%Morrisonetal.2000426122%Lüthhje20035OS13119.1%Franke&vonHippel200361539.8%Lüthhje200471974437.8%Franke&Shah2003829119.2%Lüthhjeetal.20022.1162.1486————10105——Hollander196580Knight1963pp.2-3Smith1776pp.11-13Rosenberg1976Enos1962Freeman1968vonHippel198880Pavitt1984Shah200012vonHippel198617Schmookler1966Mansfield1968MorrisonRoberts&Midgely2004Franke&vonHippel2003bUrban&vonHippel1988PC-CAD——138PC-CADPC-CADPC-CADPC-CADPC-CADn38n98PC-CAD87PC-CAD195.6%PC-CADPC-CADPC-CADPC-CADp0.0118MorrisonRoberts&vonHippel2000OPACs2070Tedd1994197870198548OPACMatthews1985OPAC8Tedd1994102OPACs26OPACOPAC2.2——OPACsOPACs2.2OPACOPACOPAC2OPACIT222/229Morrisonetal.200011LES[ρLESCLU0.904P0.000]1OPACLES——19882.32.3Χ42=33.85ρ20.4087.781.862-0.845-1.0690.695-2.5930.6010.4360.4120.4560.556Morrisonetal.20006OPACOPAC1OPAC2703625OPACs——OPACs10%20Frank&Shah2003610————19737.8%3220411823%2.42.4abcd1d2d4.4643.0772.482.853.392.892.713.584.944.564.293.273.903.1732.7368.713.824.143.614.034.345.655.385.844.385.13P0.01P0.05P0.01P0.05P0.05P0.001P0.01P0.05P0.01P0.001P0.001P0.001Franke&Shah20033an60bn129ctd17tLüthje200310262——32.622p0.0121p0.01p0.05p0.014822NASA200039142.230%54%LüthjeHerstatt&vonHippel20024310233.13.14439.6%4540.5%3430.6%6861.3%6054.1%/2219.6%hardpack1311.7%5347.7%/3430.6%98.1%1513.5%98.1%54.5%109.0%1713%2926.1%327%3632.4%LüthjeHerstattvonHippel1116111124Punj&Stewart1983Wind19782070Green1971BreenSchaffer1998155.546%Fanke&Risinger2003Franke&vonHippel2003b3.754%1•Franke&vonhippel2003bSUN/netscape200467%452253Apache-modules.orgHc0.98ijiHc11044550%925WTPmitchell&carson1989680%4171377052321100•Slaughter1993-48419894771989411989341282————184.14.131NcHVAC0.10.10.10.10.20.20.20.20.40.51.25.00.5$20303241606079801231603771500153122312713131$1400$1400$28000$2800$2800$2800$2800$2800$700000$1400$2800$280000$12367NSlaughter1993456153——40——32——280Means1989525044——EhrenkrantzGroup1979Duke19881004.1--•--33VijijNjjWhjjWhjjPjjTjtVijNjVijjjVij-WhjPj≤Whjjt0T0NjPj-Whj-T0Pj≤WhjWhjPjNjWhj-Whj-T0NjT/Whj1N1jT0T0t0NjWhj-t-Whj0WhjtNjWhj/Whj-t1nnT/t1nt0.25WhjT10Whjnn11Whj/0.75Whj14.66Nj≥1511534NjNjT/tBaldwin&Clark2003HertelNiednerHerrmann2003Lakhani&Wolf2005n68434%58333054541Lakhani&Wolf200566160Csikszehtmihalyi197519901996Amabile19963536Baron1988Marples1961Allen1966vonHippel&Tyre1995Thomke199820035.11234//5.137Thomke2003/ThomkevonHippel&Franke199838vonHippel1994Teece19772625919Mansfieldetal.198220Winter&Suzlanski2001Polanyi1958pp.49-53Cohen&Levinthal1990Rosenberg19761982Nelson19821990vonHippel&Tyre199539/Arora&Gambardella1994vonHippel1994Riggs&vonHippel19945.1405.1n82%48&13%18%52%87%172324605.1Ogawa199824NEC7-11SEJ7-117-113012Kotabe19957-117-117-117-11240.5784p0.010.4789p0.05LüthjeHerstatt&vonHippel2002vanderPlas&Kelly19982070Penning1998Buenstorf200219751976MarinCountyCalifornia4161982Specialized208020005806520021996BritishColumbiaWashingtonState2911984.5%5.25.24.224.562.1145247.5%52.4%16%Lüthjeetal.2003N611742Foray200443HarhoffHenke&vonHippel2003Allen19831918501875Nuvolari200419CornwallDistrict19••1982LeansEngineReporterLim2000IBM44IBMTechniconvonHippel&Finkelstein1979Mishina1989IT56/Franke&Shah2003p0.001t2004SourceForge.net83000LinuxHenkel2003LinuxHarhoffHenkel&vonHippel200345Lakhani&vonHippel20036.16.1n21n67383824611821LakhanivonHippel200310Mansfield19851001218461Allen1983p.17//Hall&Harhoff200440Aroraetal.2001Taylor&Silberston197332245R&DLevinetal.1987130650R&DMansfield19681985Cohen20002002Arundel2001Sattler200319831994IBMTIHarhoffHenkel&vonHippel2003Shah200047Allen1983Raymond1999Lerner&Tirole2002Hirschleifer1971/deFraja199348Lakhani&Wolf2005