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Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?什么是语言学[A]ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(对语言进行的科学研究)Processoflinguisticstudy:①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;②Hypothesesareformulated;③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.[B]ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通语言学:thestudyoflanguageasawhole从整体研究1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2.Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4.Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)5.Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction6.Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive规定性与描写性②Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.③Speechandwriting言语与文字Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten④Langueandparole语言和言语ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指语言在实际运用中的实现）⑤Competenceandperformance语言能力与语言运用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）Whatislanguage?什么是语言[A]ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根据规则组合在一起）b)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c)Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d)Human:languageishuman-specific（语言是人类所独有的）[B]Designfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）①Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）b)somecompoundwords（某些复合词）②Productivity（能产性，创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness)★③Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）④Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations)⑤Culturaltransition（文化传递性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Chapter2Phonology音位学[A]Thedefinitionofphonetics（语音学）Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（发音语音学）Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.（听觉语音学）Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（声学语音学）[B]Organsofspeech（发音器官）Voiceless:清音whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced(Voicing):浊音whenthevocalcords声带aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowels元音aretypicallyvoiced(voicing).Theimportantcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齿2,teethridge(alveolus)齿龈3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate(velum)软腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords声带10[C]Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds：Broadandnarrowtranscriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标)Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly（代表字母的符号）Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-