法律英语专题：侵权法(tort-law)

TortLawGeneralTortacivilwrongwhichunfairlycausessomeoneelsetosufferlossorharm★Itdoesnotincludebreachofcontractortrust.(Acivilwrongcanbeatort,breachofcontractorbreachoftrust.)PurposeoftortlawtoproviderelieftotheinjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousactGeneraltodeterothersfromcommittingthesameactUStortlawTortlawintheU.S.islargelycommonlaw.Courtshavethepowertoshapeandchangetheelementsofclaimsanddefensesofexistingtortsandthepowertocreatenewtorts.Statuteshavebeenpassedinattemptsto‘reform’thetortsystem.GeneralMostofthemhaverelatedtoproceduralmattersandamountsandcategoriesofdamages.ManyjudgesutilizetheRestatementofTorts(2nd)asaninfluentialguide.TheRestatementisaninfluentialtreatiseissuedbytheAmericanLawInstitute,whichsummarizesthegeneralprinciplesofcommonlawUnitedStatestortlaw.CategoriesoftortsintentionaltortsGeneralnegligencestrictliabilitytortsIntentionalTortsGeneralDefinitionAnintentionaltortisatortresultingfromanintentionalactonthepartofthetortfeasor.SubcategoriestortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressGeneralpropertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversiondignitarytortsdefamationinvasionofprivacyTortsAgainstthePersonAssaultDefinitionanintentionalactthatcausesanapprehensionofimmediateharmfuloroffensivecontact★Apprehensionisnotthesameasfear—hereitmeansawarenessthataninjuryoroffensivecontactisimminent.RequirementsTheactmustbeovert.Merewordsdonotconstituteanassault.AssaultTheremustbeanaccompanyingact.Thedefendantmusthavetheapparentabilitytocarryoutthecontact.Actualabilitytocarryoutthecontactisnotnecessary.Theplaintiffmusthaveareasonableapprehensionofsuchcontact.Actualfearontheplaintiff’spartisnotrequired.ExamplesAssaultswingingabaseballbatatsomeoneholdingarockandthreateningtothrowitatsomeonepointingagunatsomeonepointingarealistictoygunatsomeoneCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultCriminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.Withthetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.Assault＊Adefendantwhothrowsarockatasleepingvictimandmissescanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.BatteryDefinitionanintentionalactthatcausesaharmfuloroffensivecontact‘Harmful’contactcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepain‘Offensive’contactcontactthatwouldoffendaperson’ssenseofpersonaldignityBatteryExamplesbeatingsomeonewithatireironspittinginsomeone'sfaceknockingahatoffsomeone'sheadwhippingahorseonwhichsomeonewasriding,causinghimtofallandbeinjuredmixingsomethingoffensiveinfoodthatheknowsanotherwilleat—theotherdoesinfacteattheoffensivematterBatterydiggingapitwiththeintentthatanotherwillfallintoitlater—theotherdoesinfactfallintoitCriminalandtortiousbatteryUsuallybatteryisprosecutedasacrimeonlyincasesinvolvingseriousharmtothevictim.Criminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.FalseImprisonmentDefinitionthedetentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsent★Theessenceofthetortisthenaturalmentalharmthatresultswhenone’sfreedomisrestrictedwithoutjustification.ElementsintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainareaFalseImprisonmentactualconfinementawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfinednoreasonablemeansofescapeFalsearrest‘Falsearrest’occurswhensomeonearrestsanotherindividualwithoutthelegalauthoritytodoso,whichbecomesfalseimprisonmentthemomentheorsheistakenintocustody.IIEDDefinition★shortforintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress★referredtoasthetortofoutrageinsomejurisdictionsintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementsThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly.IIEDThedefendant'sconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous.Theconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.SevereemotionaldistressThistortinvolvesmorethanhurtfeelings,disappointment,orworry.Theremustbeseverementalsuffering,i.e.suchthatnoreasonablepersonshouldbeexpectedtoendureit.IIED★Thisstandardisquantifiedbytheintensity,duration,andanyphysicalmanifestations(ulcersorheadaches,forexample)ofthedistress.ExamplesApersonrefusedtoinformanotherofthewhereaboutsofthatother'schildforseveralyears,thoughthepersonknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.IIEDApersonsentalettertoanotherfalselyinforminghimthataclosefamilymemberofhishadbeenkilledinanaccident.StatuteofLimitationsDefinitionanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectivetopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnessesStatuteofLimitationsFunctionThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiff'scomplaint.StatuteofLimitationsIfnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwi