国家创新系统中的大学

UNIVERSITIESINNATIONALINNOVATIONSYSTEMSbyDAVIDC.MOWERYBHAVENN.SAMPATSchoolofpublicpolicy&managementOutlineIntroductionWhatfunctionsdouniversitiesperformwithinnationalinnovationsystems?Theroleofuniversitiesinnationalinnovationsystems:cross-nationaldataHowdoesuniversityresearchaffectindustrialinnovation?From“sciencepush”to“technologycommercialization”conclusion1.IntroductionTheresearchuniversityplaysanimportantroleasasourceoffundamentalknowledgeand,occasionally,industriallyrelevanttechnologyinmodernknowledge-basedeconomies.Governmentsthroughouttheindustrializedworldhavelaunchednumerousinitiativessincethe1970stolinkuniversitiestoindustrialinnovationmoreclosely.Manyoftheseinitiativesseektospurlocaleconomicdevelopmentbasedonuniversityresearch.Scienceparks,businessincubators,seedcapital,etc.Ratherthanivorytowersdevotedtothepursuitofknowledgeforitsownsake,agrowingnumberofindustrial-economyanddeveloping-economygovernmentsseektouseuniversitiesasinstrumentsforknowledge-basedeconomicdevelopmentandchange.Intheknowledge-basedeconomy,nationalsystemsofhighereducationcanbeastrategicasset,iflinkswithindustryarestrengthenedandthetransferoftechnologyenhancedandaccelerated.UniversitiesthroughouttheOECDalsohavebeenaffectedbytighterconstraintsonpublicfundingsince1970.GrowthinpublicfundingforhighereducationhasslowedinanumberofOECDmemberstates.Facedwithincreasedcompetitionforresearchfunding,andcontinuingcostpressureswithinoperatingbudgetsduringthepasttwodecades,someuniversitieshavebecomemoreaggressiveandentrepreneurialinseekingnewsourcesoffunding.Bothinternalandexternalfactorsthushaveledmanynations'universitiestopromotestrongerlinkageswithindustryasameansofstrengtheningtheircontributionstoinnovationandeconomicgrowth.2.Whatfunctionsdouniversitiesperformwithinnationalinnovationsystems?thedefinitionof“nationalinnovationsystems”:theinstitutionsandactorsthataffectthecreation,development,anddiffusionofinnovations.Universitiesarewidelycitedascriticalinstitutionalactorsinnationalinnovationsystems.UniversitiesthroughouttheOECDnowcombinethefunctionsofeducationandresearch.Thisjointproductionoftrainedpersonnelandadvancedresearchmaybemoreeffectivethanspecializationinoneortheotheractivity.Theeconomicallyimportantoutputsofuniversityresearchhavecomeindifferentforms:scientificandtechnologicalinformation,equipmentandinstrumentation,skillsorhumancapital,networksofscientificandtechnologicalcapabilities,prototypesfornewproductsandprocesses.Oneinfluentialconceptualizationoftheroleofacademicresearchwithinnationalinnovationsystemsandeconomieswastheso-calledlinearmodelofinnovationwidelyassociatedwithVannevarBushandhisfamousblueprintfortheUSpost-1945R&Dsystem,Science:TheEndlessFrontier.BusharguedforexpandedpublicfundingforbasicresearchwithinUSuniversitiesasacriticalcontributortoeconomicgrowth,andarguedthatuniversitieswerethemostappropriateinstitutionallocusforbasicresearch.Thislinearmodeloftheinnovationprocessassertedthatfundingofbasicresearchwasbothnecessaryandsufficienttopromoteinnovation.Yetanotherviewoftheroleofuniversityresearchfocusesonthecontrastingnormsofacademicandindustrialresearch.Foracademicresearchers,professionalrecognitionandadvancementdependcruciallyonbeingfirsttodiscloseandpublishtheirresult.Industrialinnovation,bycontrast,reliesmoreheavilyonsecrecyandlimitationstothedisclosureofresearchresults.Thesignificanceoftheseculturaldifferencesfortheconductofresearchmayassumegreatersignificanceinthefaceofcloserlinksbetweenuniversityandindustrialresearchers.Anotherconceptualframeworkthathasbeenappliedrecentlytodescriptionsoftheroleofacademicresearchinpost-modernindustrialsocietiesistheMode2conceptofresearch.Mode2researchisassociatedwithamoreinterdisciplinary,networkedinnovationsystem,incontrasttotheprevioussysteminwhichmajorcorporateoracademicresearchinstitutionswerelesscloselylinkedwithotherinstitutions.StillanotherconceptualframeworkforanalyzingthechangingpositionofuniversitieswithinnationalinnovationsystemsistheTripleHelix.thetriplehelixemphasizestheincreasedinteractionamongtheseinstitutionalactorsinindustrialeconomies'innovationsystems.Thenationalsystems,Mode2,andtriplehelixframeworksforconceptualizingtheroleoftheresearchuniversitywithintheinnovationprocessesofknowledge-basedeconomiesemphasizetheimportanceofstronglinksbetweenuniversitiesandotherinstitutionalactorsintheseeconomies.Whatislackinginalloftheseframeworks,however,isaclearsetofcriteriabywhichtoassessthestrengthofsuchlinkagesandasetofindicatorstoguidethecollectionofdata.3.Theroleofuniversitiesinnationalinnovationsystems:cross-nationaldata3.1ComparativeDataontheStructureofNationalSystemsThroughoutthetwentiethcentury,USuniversitiesretainedgreatautonomyintheiradministrativepolicies.Rosenberg(1999)andBen-David(1968)arguethatthislackofcentralcontrolforcedAmericanuniversitiestobemoreentrepreneurialandtheirresearchandcurriculatobemoreresponsivetochangingsocio-economicdemandsthantheirEuropeancounterparts.EnrollmentdataindicatethattheUSsystemenrolledalargerfrac