语言学language-and-society

Chapter9LanguageandsocietySociolinguistics----asub-fieldoflinguiststhatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety----Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuser’ssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)Language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)Asasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalic[r]).SpeechcommunityandspeechvarietySpeechcommunity----thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Speechvarietyorlanguagevariety----anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudiesMacro-sociolinguistics,i.e.abird’s-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;Micro-sociolinguistics,i.e.aworm’s-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.VarietiesoflanguageDialectalvarietiesRegisterDegreeofformalityDialectalvarietiesRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).Socialdialect(Sociolect)isalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)Languageandgender(e.g.intonation,lexicon)Languageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox----fridge,wireless----boombox)Idiolect----apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).Ethnicdialect----asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).RegisterRegister,inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoone’soccupation.Inabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Hallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse.ThreesocialvariablesFieldofdiscourse:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Tenorofdiscourse:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)Modeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline…)Degreeofformality----Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Frozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.----Note:Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological.Standarddialect(language)Thestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.Standardlanguageisactuallyanidealizedvariety,butexistsformostpeopleastheversionthatisacceptedastheofficiallanguageoftheircommunityorcountry.StandardEnglishistheversionwebelieveisfoundinprintedEnglishinnewspapersandbooks,iswidelyusedinthemassmediaandistaughtinmostschools.ItisthevarietywenormallytrytoteachtothosewhowanttolearnEnglishasasecondorforeignlanguage.Itisclearlyassociatedwitheducationandbroadcastinginpubliccontextsandismoreeasilydescribedintermsofthewrittenlanguage(i.e.vocabulary,spelling,grammar)thanthespokenlanguage.LinguafrancaSpeakersofmutuallyunintelligiblelanguagewhoneedtocommunicatewitheachotherhaveavarietyofmeansavailabletothem.Awidespreadmethodofbridgingthelinguisticgapistousealinguafranca,alanguageagreeduponasamediumofcommunicationbypeoplewhospeakdifferentfirstlanguages.IntheUSA,thelanguageusedforcommunocationwiththemembersofmanydifferentnativeAmericantribeshasbeenEnglish,thespeechofthedominantsociety.Nowalongwithglobalization,Englishhasgraduallybecomealinguafrancawhichisusedforcommunicationamongthespeakersfromdifferentlanguagebackground.PidginandCreoleApidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.ThereareseveralEnglishpidginsstillusedtoday.Theyarecharacterizedbyanabsenceofanycomplexgrammaticalmorphologyandasomewhatlimitedv