05Chapter 5_semantics语言学语义学

1ChapterFiveMeaning21.TheStudyofMeaningSemantics:Themeaningofwords:LexicalsemanticsThemeaningofsentences:Propositionalmeaning,compositionalmeaningLinguisticsemanticsvs.Logicalsemantics/philosophicalsemanticsPragmatics:Themeaningofutterances32.SemanticMeaningSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Meaninghasbeenstudiedforthousandsofyearsbyphilosophers,logiciansandlinguists.E.g.Plato&Aristotle.4Logiciansandphilosophershavetendedtoconcentrateonarestrictedrangeofsentences(typically,statements,or‘propositions’)withinasinglelanguage.Thelinguisticapproachaimstostudythepropertiesofmeaninginasystematicandobjectiveway,withreferencetoaswidearangeofutterancesandlanguagesaspossible,∴broaderinscope.53.ThemeaningofmeaningC.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).TheMeaningofMeaning.Johnmeanstowrite.Agreenlightmeanstogo.Healthmeanseverything.Hislookwasfullofmeaning.Whatisthemeaningoflife?Whatdoes‘capitalist’meantoyou?Whatdoes‘cornea’mean?6GeoffreyLeech(1974,1981).Semantics:TheStudyofMeaning.Seventypesofmeaning:ConceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedandmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaningAssociativeMeaning73.1ConceptualmeaningAlsocalled‘denotative’or‘cognitive’meaning.Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.83.2ConnotativemeaningThecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Amultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.9Involvingthe‘realworld’experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Unstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.103.3SocialmeaningWhatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.Dialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass.Time:thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.Province:languageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.11domicile:veryformal,officialresidence:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:babylanguage123.4AffectivemeaningReflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.You’reavicioustyrantandavillainousreprobate,andIhateyouforit!I’mterriblysorrytointerrupt,butIwonderifyouwouldbesokindastoloweryourvoicesalittle.orWillyoubeltup.133.5ReflectedmeaningArisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice’,youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.Manytabootermsareresultofthis.143.6CollocativemeaningTheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.153.7ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.164.TheTheoryofReferenceWords→Meaning:Words‘name’or‘referto’things--PlatonicWords→Concepts→Things:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/imagesymbolizesreferstosymbol--------------------------------------referent(word)standsfor(object)175.Sense‘Meaning’isnotsomekindof‘entity’separatefromlanguage.Thatwords‘havemeaning’meansonlythattheyareusedinacertainwayinasentence.Thereisno‘meaning’beyondthemeaningofindividualwordsandsentences.18‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.(LudwigWittgenstein)Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference:howlanguagereferstothisexternalworldSense:thewaypeoplerelatewordstoeachotherwithintheframeworkoftheirlanguage19Thefamilytree舅父=‘mother’sbrother’叔叔=‘father’syoungerbrother’伯父=‘father’selderbrother’姨母=‘mother’ssister’姑母=‘father’ssister’206.SenseRelationsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyGradableComplementaryConverse216.1Synonymybuy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground226.2Gradableantonymygood-----------------------badlong-----------------------shortbig-----------------------smallCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow.236.3Complementaryantonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss246.4Converseantonymybuy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee256.5HyponymyInclusivenessAisincludedin/akindofB.Cf.:chairandfurniture,rosean