英语词汇学 Unit 07 Changes in meaning

EnglishLexicologyUnit7ChangesinMeaningContentsCausesofchangesTypesofchangesTransferenceofmeaningProcessofmeaningchangeTendencyofmeaningchangeCausesofChangeLinguisticfactorsEllipsisBorrowingAnalogyFigurativeuseofwordsMetaphorMetonymyExtra-linguisticfactorsHistoricalreasonSocialreasonPsychologicalreasonEllipsisThemeaningofawordmaychangewhenaphraseisshortenedtoonewordwhichretainsthemeaningofthewhole.Thisiscalledellipsis.gold:goldmedaldaily:dailynewspaperThemeaningoftheword“gold”haschangedfrommaterialtorefertothewholephrase“goldmedal”.Thiskindofchangeoftenoccursinhabitualcollocations.BorrowingTheinflux(流入)ofborrowingshascausedsomewordstochangeinmeaning.deer(original)awildanimalofanysortfromaliontoamouse.InMiddleAges,theFrenchwordbeste(=beast)becamethegeneralword.In16thcentury,theLatinwordanimalwasalsoadoptedintotheEnglishvocabulary.Todaydeercanonlyrefertoaparticularkindofanimal.AnalogyIfanadjectivedevelopsanewmeaning,thederivednounfromtheadjectivewillhaveacorrespondingnewmeaningbyanalogy.Theprocesscanbeappliedtoawordofanywordclass.Diplomatic(original)skillfulindealingwithinternationalrelations(present)skillfulindealingwithanykindofrelationsDiplomatic:DiplomacyDiplomacy(original)theartofdealingwithinternationalrelations(present)???artoforskillindealingwithpeopleAnalogyFigurativeuseofwords-MetaphorMetaphorisafigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparisonbasedonsimilarity.Acunningpersonmaybereferredtoasafox.Here“fox”meanssomethingotherthanitsliteralmeaning.Theword“fox”getsthefigurativemeaningof“acunningperson”.Example:footfoot1.Lowestpartoftheleg,belowtheankle,onwhichapersonoranimalstands.2.Thelowestpart;thebottom.thefootofamountainthefootofapageThismeaningisderivedthroughthemetaphor“Thelastlineonthispageisthefootofthepage.”MetonymyMetonymyisafigureofspeechbywhichanobjectoranideaisdescribedbythenameofsomethingelsecloselyrelatedtoit.SeatPleasetakeaseat.(apieceoffurniture)HelosthisseatinHouseofCommons.Theword“seat”hasacquiredthemeaningof“therighttositasamember”throughmetonymy.MoreExample:cradleCradle1.Asmalllowbedforaninfant,oftenfurnishedwithrockers2.Theearliestperiodoflife;infancyfromthecradletothegrave3.Aplaceoforigin;abirthplacethecradleofcivilization.Thesemeaningsarederivedthroughthefollowingmetonyms.HistoricalreasonAwordhasretaineditsoriginalform,thoughitsmeaninghaschangedbecausethereferenthaschanged.pencarSocialreasonLanguagerecordsthespeechandattitudeofdifferentsocialclasses,sodifferentsocialvarietiesoflanguagehavecomeintobeing.Theattitudeofclasseshavepenetratedintolexicalmeaning,particularlyinthecaseofelevationanddegradation.Churl,hussy,villainwhichwereoriginallyneutralhavebeendown-gradedas“ill-mannedorbadpeople”.PsychologicalreasonTheassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwords,etc.areoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.Peoplechangewordmeaningowingtovariouspsychologicalmotives:love,respect,courtesy,suspicion,pessimism,sarcasm,irony,hatred,contempt,avoidanceofembarrassment,etc.TypesofchangesWidening/ExtensionNarrowing/SpecializationElevation/AmeliorationDegeneration/PejorationEuphemismLexicalrevivalsLossofoldmeaningsExtensionofMeaning:GeneralizationGeneralizationofMeaning:Itisaprocessbywhichawordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralizedorhasextendedtocoverabroaderconcept.salary(original)asumofmoneygiventoRomansoldierstoenablethemtobuysalt(present)fixedpaymentmadebyemployeratregularintervalstoemployeesholiday(original)holyday,adayofreligioussignificance(present)dayoffestivityorrecreationGeneralizationofmeaningisalsofoundinmanytechnicalterms,whichareconfinedtospecializeduse.allergic(original)toosensitivetomedicine患过敏症的(present)averseordisinclinedto反感的；厌恶的alibi(original)alegaltermsignifying“thepleathattheaccusedisnotattheplacewhenthecrimeiscommitted”(present)excuse(借口)GeneralizationNarrowingofMeaning:SpecializationItisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarroworspecializedsense.ExampleOriginalMeaningMeaningafterNarrowingmeatfood食物fleshofanimals肉diseasediscomfort不适illness疾病wifewoman妇女marriedwoman妻子starvetodietodieofhungeraccidentevent事件unfortunateevent事故NarrowingofMeaningForeconomy,somephrasesareshortenedandonlyoneelementoftheoriginal,usuallyanadjective,islefttoretainthemeaningofthewhole.Suchadjectiveshavethustakenonspecializedmeanings.ageneral=ageneralofficeraneditorial=aneditorialarticleSomematerialnounsareusedtorefertoobjectsmadeofthemandthushaveamorespecificsense.glassacup-likecontaineroramirrorirondeviceforsmoothingclothesElevationofMeaning(amelioration)Itistheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningstopositionsofimportance.Somewordsearlyintheirhistorysignifysomethingquiteloworhumble,butchangetodesignatesomethingagreeableorpleasant.A“snarl”wordbecomesa“purr”word,oraslangbecomesacommonword.Examplesofelevationniceignorant→foolish→delightful,pleasantfondfoolish→affectionateawesometerrible→terrificmarshalakeeperofhorses→ahighrankingarmyofficerconstableakeeperofhorses→apolicemanDegradationofMeaning(degeneration,pejoration)Itis