语篇连贯与衔接-5

6.4CohesionTheconceptoftextThewordtextisusedinlinguisticstorefertoanypassage,spokenorwritten,ofwhateverlength,thatdoesformaunifiedwhole.Atextmaybespokenorwritten,proseorverse,dialogueormonologue.Itmaybeanythingfromasingleproverbtoawholeplay,fromamomentarycryforhelptoall-daydiscussiononacommittee.ThepropertyofbeingatextIfaspeakerofEnglishhearsorreadsapassageofthelanguagewhichismorethanonesentenceinlength,hecannormallydecidewithoutdifficultywhetheritformsaunifiedwholeorisjustacollectionofunrelatedsentences.Takethefollowingtwopassagesforexample.A.Throughoutthelonghistoryofmathematics,menhavealwayswishedthattheycouldcalculatequickly.Aseachmathematicaldiscoverywasmadeandknowledgeadvancedalittlethecalculationsfacingmathematiciansbecamemoreandmorecomplicatedanddemandedanevengreatertime.Therearesomepeoplewholikedoinglonganddifficultarithmetic,butmostofusdonotandareeagertofinishoursumsintheshortestandeasiestway.B.EverymorningTom’smothergotupearlytopreparebreakfast.ButTompreferredmusictomathatschool.Lastweektherewasatrafficjamduetoacaraccident,whichwascausedbythecarelessnessofthedriver.However,theschoolmasterdecidedtokeepthesecretforTom.Althoughhewasnottoorich,Tom’sfathermanagedtobuyabeautifuldressforhiswifeasaChristmasgift.Generallyspeaking,weknowwhichoftheabovetwopassagesisatextandwhichisnot,ortoputitanotherway,wearesensitivetothedistinctionbetweenwhatisatextandwhatisnot.Althoughthedistinctionseemstobemadeinanintuitiveway,actuallytheredoesexistsomepropertiesofbeingatext,whichdistinguishesatextfromsomethingwhichisnotatext.Forexample,atextmusthaveaconsistentsubjectmatter,whichisobservedbytextAandviolatedbytextB.Hence,atextisnotarandomcollectionofunrelatedsentences.Onthecontrary,itmustformaunifiedwholeandisbestregardedasasemanticunit:aunitofmeaning.ConceptofcohesionTocallasequenceofsentencesa‘text’istoimplythatthesentencesdisplaysomekindofmutualdependency;theyarenotoccurringatrandom.Sometimestheinternalstructureofatextisimmediatelyapparent,asintheheadingsofarestaurantmenu;sometimesithastobecarefullydemonstrated,asinthenetworkofrelationshipsthatenterintoaliterarywork.(e.g.anarrativeconsistsofsetting,theme,plot,resolution)Inallcases,thetaskoftextualanalysisistoidentifythelinguisticfeaturesthatcausethesentencesequenceto‘cohere’.Thetiesthatbindatexttogetherareoftenreferredtoundertheheadingofcohesion(afterM.A.K.HallidayandR.Hasan,1976).Theunityofatextcanbeachievedbyanumberofsemanticandlexicogrammaticalmeans,amongwhichthemostimportantiscohesion.Theconceptofcohesion,asdefinedbyHalliday&Hasan(1985:4),isasemanticone.Itreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,whichisrealizedbycohesiveties（衔接纽带）,whichmaybegrammaticalcohesivedevicessuchasreferences（指称）,ellipsis（省略）,substitution（替代）,conjunction（连接）andlexicalcohesion（词汇衔接）.ReferenceThesemanticrelationinwhichawordorwordsareusedtoenabletheaddresseetoidentifysomeoneorsomething.Accordingtowhetherthereferentisretrievablewithinthetextoroutinthecontextofsituation,referencefallsintothefollowingcategories.Exophoricreference:whichreferstoanitemwhosereferentisretrievableinthecontextofsituation.Exophoricrelationisameansoflinking‘outwards’tosomepersonorobjectintheenvironment.Forexample:(Amothersaidtoherchild)“Comehereandpickitup.”Inthisutterance,theinterpretationof“here”and“it”isdependentonthesituationinwhichtheutteranceisproduced.Endophoricreference:whichreferstoanitemwhosereferentcanberetrievablewithinthetext.Twotypesofrelationshiparerecognized:anaphoricrelationslookbackwardsfortheirinterpretation,andcataphoricrelationslookforwards.Forexample,Severalpeopleapproached.Theyseemedangry.Listentothis:John’sgettingmarried.Wecanillustratereferencewiththefollowingdiagram:Reference[situational][textual]exophoraendophora[toprecedingtext][tofollowingtext]anaphoracataphoraSubstitution:Thereplacementofoneitembyanother.1)I’vegotapencil.Doyouhaveone?2)Thesebiscuitsarestale.–Getsomefreshones.3)A:I’llhavetwopoachedeggsontoast,please.B:I’llhavethesame.4)YouthinkJoanalreadyknows?Ithinkeveryonedoes.5)Willwegetthereontime?-Ithinkso.6)Haseveryonegonehome?–Ihopenot.Nominal:one,ones,same;verbal:do;clausal:so,not.Ellipsis:theomissionofoneitem.Ellipsisisverysimilartosubstitution,andsometimestheformerissimplyreferredtoas‘substitutionbyzero’.1)Whichlastlonger,thecurvedrodsorthestraightrods?–Thestraightarelesslikelytobreak.2)Joanbroughtsomeapples,andCatherinesomepears.3)Haveyoubeenswimming?–Yes,Ihave.4)Whathaveyoubeendoing?–Swimming.5)Smithwasgoingtotakepart,butsomebodytelephonedandaskedtoseehimurgentlysohewithdraw.–Who?1)isnominalellipsis,2),3),4)areverbalellipsisand5)isclausalellipsis.Conjunctiverelations:Whatisabouttobesaidisexplicitlyrelatedtowhathasbeensaidbefore,throughsuchnotionsascontrast,result,andtime:1)Ileftearly.However,Jeanstayedtilltheend.2)Hedidn’tpasstheBand-4test.Consequently,hedidn’tgethisdegree.3)Lastly,there’sthequestionofcost.4)Forthewholedayheclimbedupthesteepmountainside,almostwithoutstopping.Andinallthistimehemetnoone.lexicalcohesion:whichreferstothecohesiveeffectachievedbythechoiceoflexica