The multiple facets of empathy- a survey of theory

Anders,Ende,Jungho¨fer,Kissler&Wildgruber(Eds.)ProgressinBrainResearch,Vol.156ISSN0079-6123Copyrightr2006ElsevierB.V.AllrightsreservedCHAPTER23Themultiplefacetsofempathy:asurveyoftheoryandevidenceSusanneLeiberg1,2,
andSilkeAnders1,31InstituteofMedicalPsychologyandBehavioralNeurobiology,UniversityofTu¨bingen,Tu¨bingen,Germany2DepartmentofPsychiatryandPsychotherapy,RWTHAachenUniversity,Aachen,Germany3SectionforExperimentalMRoftheCNS,UniversityofTu¨bingen,Tu¨bingen,GermanyAbstract:Empathyistheabilitytoperceiveandunderstandotherpeople’semotionsandtoreactappro-priately.Thisabilityisanecessaryprerequisiteforsuccessfulinterpersonalinteraction.Empathyisamultifacetedconstructincludinglow-levelmechanismslikeemotionalcontagionaswellashigh-levelprocesseslikeperspective-taking.Theabilitytoempathizevariesbetweenindividualsandisconsideredastablepersonalitytrait:somepeoplearegenerallymoresuccessfulinempathizingthanothers.Inthischapterwewillfirstpresentdifferentconceptualizationsoftheconstructofempathy,andrefertoempathy-regulatingprocessesaswellastotherelationshipbetweenempathyandsocialbehavior.Then,wewillreviewperipheralphysiologicalandbrainimagingstudiespertainingtolow-andhigh-levelempathicprocesses,empathy-modulatingprocesses,andthelinkbetweenempathyandsocialbehavior.Further,wewillpresentevidenceregardinginterindividualdifferencesintheseprocessesasanimportantsourceofinformationforsolvingtheconundrumofhowthecomprehensionofothers’emotionsisachievedbyourbrains.Keywords:empathy;emotionalcontagion;simulationtheory;perspective-taking;theoryofmind;emotionregulation;neuroimaging;psychophysiologyIntroductionAshumans,weliveinahighlycomplexsocialenvironment.Notonlydoweinteractwithourclosestkin,butmaintainacomplicatedsocialnetworkwithfriends,colleagues,acquaintances,andthelike.Toachieveourgoalsindailylife,wehavetodealwithcompletestrangersor,worse,withpeoplewewouldratherchoosetoavoid.Empathy—thecapabilitytounderstandotherpeople’semotions—iscrucialforcomprehendingintentionsandbehaviorsaswellasforadaptingourownbehaviorinordertoachievesmoothinterpersonalinteractions.Inmostgeneralterms,empathyreferstotheabilitytoaccuratelyperceiveandunderstandanotherperson’semotionsandtoreactappropriately.Howthiscapabilityofun-derstandingothers’emotionscanbeconceptual-izedandhowitisinfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactorshasbeendebatedsincethebegin-ningofthelastcentury.Withtheadventofmod-ernneuroimagingmethods,interestinempathyhasbeenspurred,whichhasproducedaconsid-erablenumberofstudiessheddinglightontheneuralbasesofempathy.Thisreviewisdividedintotwosections:Thefirstpartpertainstothetheoreticalbackgroundandreviewsdifferentconceptualizationsofempathy.Itwillbeshownthatmostresearchersviewempathy
Correspondingauthor.Tel.:[phone];Fax:[phone];E-mail:[e-mail]:10.1016/S0079-6123(06)56023-6419asamultifacetedconstructinvolvinglow-levelaffectiveprocesses,likeemotionalcontagion,sometimesregardedasautomaticprocesses,andhigh-levelcognitiveprocesses,likeperspective-taking.Thesecondpartillustrateshowperipheralphysiologicalandneuroimagingstudiescontrib-utedtotheunderstandingofempathy.Wewillreviewstudiesrelatedtocontagion-likeprocessesandperspective-taking.Additionally,wewillded-icateoneparagraphtoindividualdifferencesintheseprocesses,sincewebelievethattheanalysisofindividualdifferencesisusefulforelucidatingtheneurobiologyofempathy.Finally,studieswillbereviewedthathaveinvestigatedprocessesthatmaymodulateempathicresponsesandstudiesthathaveaddressedtherelationshipbetweenempathyandsocialbehavior.TheoreticalbackgroundEmpathyhasbeenthesubjectofinvestigationinmanydifferentresearchareas,includingpersonalitypsychology(Allport,1961),psychotherapyresearch(Rogers,1975),socialpsychology(BatsonandCoke,1981),developmentalpsychology(EisenbergandStrayer,1987)and,recently,socialneurosci-ence(DecetyandJackson,2004;Blair,2005).The-odorLipps(1903)usedtheGermanword‘‘einfu¨hlen,’’meaning‘‘tofeelinto,’’toexplainhowapersoncomestoknowabouttheinnerstateofothers.Hebelievedthatweachieveanunder-standingofanotherpersonbyinternallyimitatingtheother’sgesturesandactions(anideathatlatercametobecalled‘‘motormimicry’’).Lateron,‘‘einfu¨hlen’’wastranslatedinto‘‘empathy’’byTitchener(1909).SincethetimeofLippsandTitchener,manydefinitionsofempathyhavebeenputforward(seeTable1),butstilltodayaconcise,agreed-upondefinitionofempathyismissing.ThecommondenominatorofthedefinitionslistedinTable1isthecompassionaterespondingtoanotherperson’semotions(perhapsexcludingIckes’(1997)definition).Disagreementsubsistsregardingtheimplementationofempathyandwhetheritoccursinacontagion-likefashionordependsonhigherlevelcognitiveprocesses.‘‘Contagion-like’’refersto‘‘thetendencytoautomaticallymimicandsynchro-nizefacialexpressions,vocalizations,postures,andmovementswiththoseofanotherpersonand,con-sequently,toconvergeemotionally’’(Hatfieldetal.,1994).Incontrast,higherlevelcognitiveprocessesinempathyrefertoactivelytakingtheperspectiveofanotherperson.Table1.Definitionsoftheterm‘‘empathy’’GroupDefinitionAx(1964)Anautonomic