role-theory

CHAPTER12RoleTheoryRALPHH.TURNERRoletheorydealswiththeorganizationofsocialbehavioratboththeindividualandthecollectivelevels.Individualbehaviorinsocialcontextsisorganizedandacquiresmeaningintermsofroles.Workresponsibilitiesinorganizationsareorganizedintoroles,asisparticipa­tioningroupsandinsociety.Consequently,roletheoryisonekeyelementinunderstandingtherelationshipsamongthemicro-,macro-,andintermediatelevelsofsociety.Attheindivid­ualleveltheconceptofrolebegins,byanalogytothestage,withtwoobservations:that(1)agivenindividualmayactandevenfeelquitedifferentlyindifferentsituationsorpositions;and(2)otherwisedifferentindividualsmaybehavequitesimilarlyinsimilarrelationships.Atthevariouscollectivelevels,groups,organizations,andsocietiesfunctionbydifferentiatingsetsoftasks,eachofwhichisassignedtoorassumedbyparticularindividuals.Atbothlevels,itisimportanttounderstandthatrolereferstoaclusterofbehaviorsandattitudesthatarethoughttobelongtogether,sothatanindividualisviewedasactingconsistentlywhenperformingthevariouscomponentsofasingleroleandinconsistentlywhenfailingtodoso.Versionsofroletheorythatbeginatthecollectivelevelarereferredtoasstructuraltheories.RalphLinton(1936)definedroleasthedynamicaspectofstatus,contendingthateverystatusinsocietyhasanattachedroleandthateveryroleisattachedtoastatus.WhileLintondefinedstatusasacollectionofrightsandduties,subsequentusagecametoviewstatusaspositionandroleastheexpectedsetofrightsandduties.AttemptstoenumeratethedutiesattachedtoparticularstatusessoonledNewcomb(1950)andDahrendorf(1973)andotherstodistinguishbetweenexpectedobligatoryandoptionalbehaviorsandforbiddenbehaviorsforpersonsoccupyingspecificpositionsinsocialstructures.Recognizingthatsomeofthesestructuralapproacheswereoverlydeterministicandstatic,Merton(1957)andGross,Mason,andMacEachern(1958)offeredmoredynamictheoriesinwhichrolesareviewedasthefociofoftenconflictingexpectationsfromthevariousalterroleswithwhichtheyinteract.Mertonwentsofarastoproposethattheoccupantofapositionplayedasetofroles(roleset),eachcorrespondingtoanalterrole,andofferedatheoryofhowanoccupantreconciledorotherwisedealtwiththeseconflictingexpectations.TheessentialdynamicofallthesestructuraltheoriesRALPHH.TURNER•DepartmentofSociology,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,California90095.HandbookofSociologicalTheory,editedbyJonathanH.Turner.KluwerAcademic/PlenumPublishers,NewYork,2002.233234RALPHH.TURNERisthatroleplayersareguidedbyasetofexpectationsthatareeitherinternalizedorexperi­encedfromexternalsources,orboth,andarejudgedandjudgethemselvesaccordingtohowwelltheyconformtotheexpectations.Animportantresearchquestionbecomes:Whenandunderwhatcircumstancesdopeoplecomplywithwhatothersexpectofthem(Biddle,1979)?Incontrasttothevariousstructuraltheories,interactionalroletheorystartsfromthepatterningofsocialinteractionamongindividualsandgroupsofindividuals.Moststructuraltheorizingstartswiththeimplicitassumptionthatthestatusorpositionantedatestheroleandthattheroleisinsomesenseimposedontheindividual.Thisassumptionisanoftenusefulpartialtruthwhentheoriginsofrolesandstatusesarenotatissue.Butinteractionaltheorizingassumesthatthepatterningofbehaviorthatconstitutesrolesarisesinitiallyandrecurrentlyoutofthedynamicsofinteractionandthatstatusesandpositionsarisetoplacerolesinasocialorganizationalframework.Thisinteractionalapproachinvolvescastingthenetwiderthanmoststructuralapproachesdo,definingroleasacomprehensivepatternforbehaviorandattitudethatislinkedtoanidentity,issociallyidentifiedmoreorlessclearlyasanentity,andissubjecttobeingplayedrecognizablybydifferentindividuals.Fourbroadtypesofrolesareincludedinthisdefinition.Themostinclusivearebasicroles(Banton,1965)suchasthoseassociatedwithgender,age,andsocialclassidentities.Theyarebasic,bothinthewiderangeofsituationstowhichtheyapplyandinthewaysinwhichtheymodifythecontentandcontrolaccesstootherkindsofroles.Positionorstatusrolesarelinkedtopositionsinorganizationsandformallyorganizedgroups.Occupationalandfamilyrolesaretypicalexamples.Positionorstatusroles,alongwithbasicroles,arethestandardfareofstructuraltheories.Functionalgrouproles(Benne&Sheats,1948)aretheunformalizedbehaviorpatternsthatemergespontaneouslyasindividualsacquiresituationalidentitiesduringsustainedinteractioninagroupsetting.Theyincludesuchrolesasleader,follower,counselor,mediator,anddevilsadvocate.Valueroles,likefunctionalgrouproles,emergespontaneouslybutareattachedtoverypositivelyornegativelyvaluedidentities.Hero,saint,andvillainarecommonexamples.Interactionistsseethedynamicsoffunctionalgrouprolesandvaluerolesasfundamentaltounderstandingmorestructurallygroundedroles.Interactionisttheoryattemptstodealwithatleastfourquestionsthatoftenhavebeenneglectedbystructuraltheorists;(1)Whatarethedynamicsofdisvaluedroles?Underthestructuralists'expectation-conformity-socialapprovalformula,itisdifficulttounderstanddeviantrolesexceptinthecontextofadeviantsubculture.Isthereaformulationthatwillexplaindisvaluedandvaluedroledynamicsequallywell?(2)Howcanatheoryofrolesapplyequallywelltorolesthatareandaren