Chapter4 From Word to Text 。Syntax

1ChapterFourFromWordtoText2Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系。3Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrence1.Syntacticrelations（句法关系）41.1RelationsofPosition（位置关系）Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject5Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,6Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher7Positionalrelationsareamanifestation表现ofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations（横组合关系）observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.8Wordorderisoneofthebasicwaystoclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.91.2RelationofSubstitutability（替换关系）TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The______smiles.manboygirl10Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongmanThetallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.11ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelations（纵聚合关系）byHjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.121.3RelationofCo-occurrence（同现关系/纵横关系）Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclassesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.13Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.142.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents2.1GrammaticalConstructionGRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）orCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctions常规功能inalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.15Onthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalanditsinternalproperties.Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole,thatistosay,anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome.Forinstance,thedifferenttermssuchasclausaltype,phrasaltypeareassignedtothepropertiesoftheconstructionsrespectively.16Subject+Verb+Object(clausaltype)Mary(subject)ate(verb)anapple(object).Determiner+Noun(phrasaltype)this(determiner)edition(noun)Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction’s“make-up”,withthetermssuchas“subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun”.17Inthecontextofdiscourse/textanalysis,constructionreferstoatoken表征ofaconstructionaltype.ThesentenceThegirlisgigglingisrecognisedas“Subject+Predicate”type,butitisrealizedinastringThe+girl+is+giggling.Itistheconstructioninthissensethatcanbeanalysedintoconstituents.182.2ImmediateConstituents(直接成分)Constituent（成分）isapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction结构:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)thegirlatetheapple(S)19Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits.Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B(thegirl)andC(atetheapple),arejoinedtoformahierarchically分层次地higherconstituentA(“S”,hereasentence),thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA.A(Sentence)BCThegirlatetheapple20ThistreecontainsthreeNodes.Thetop-mostnode,A,isthemotherofthetwolowernodes,BandC.BandCaredaughtersofthesamemother,andsowerefertothemassisternodes.ThesimpletreeintheaboverepresentsaconstituentofcategoryAwhichiscomposedoftwoparts,oneofcategoryBandtheotherofcategoryC,occurringinthatorder.21Todismantle拆分agrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis(直接成分分析法)，theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached22Whenatreediagram树形图isusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit(e.g.aphraseorsentence),syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes;themostcommonofthesearelistedinthefollowing:23Word-levelPhrasalN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=nounphraseAP=adjectivephraseVP=verbphrasePP=prepositionphraseS=sentenceorclause24ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)Thegirlatetheapple25TreediagramSNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple26B