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1Chapter11.Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languageisasystem.Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.Languageisarbitrary.Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Languageissymbolicinnature.Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare2.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)⑴ArbitrarinessNological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings①Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang…)②Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…⑵Productivity/CreativityPeculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.①Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.②Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires⑶Duality①Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)②Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)③Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(Wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.⑷DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.①Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear②Thereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.⑸Culturaltransmission2Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).①Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.②AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.③Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics⑴Prescriptivevs.Descriptive①Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)②Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)⑵Synchronicvs.diachronic①Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)②Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)⑶Speechvs.writing①Speech----primarymediumoflanguage②Writing----laterdeveloped⑷Languevs.parole(F.deSaussure)①Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.②Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.⑸Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)①Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage②Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Chapter21.Speechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngealcavity----thethroat;Theoralcavity----themouth;Nasalcavity----thenose.2.ThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTipoftongueTeethBladeoftongueTeethridge(alveolar)BackoftongueHardpalateVocalcordsSoftpalate(velum)PharyngealcavityUvulaNasalcavity33.Minimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.4.Phone,phoneme,allophoneAphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontex