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Section2TheReliabilityofaSurveyandErrors测量误差的可靠性Sinceeverytechniqueofmeasurementissubjecttounavoidableerror,surveyorsmustbeawareofallsourcesandtypesoferrorandhowtheycombine.Iftheaccuracyofameasurementisdefinedasthenearnessofthatvaluetoitstruevalue(aquantitywecanneverknow)thenasurveyormustensurethatthetechniqueshechooseswillproducearesultthatissufficientlyaccurate.Hemustknow,therefore,howaccurateheneedstobe,howtoachievethisaccuracyandhowtocheckthattherequiredaccuracyhasbeenachieved.由于每个测量技术是不可避免的误差,测量员必须知道的所有误差的来源和类型,以及它们是如何结合。如果测量的准确性,其真正的值(我们可以永远不知道的数量)的接近程度,该值被定义为,然后测量员必须确保他选择的技术将产生一个结果,是足够精确的。因此,他必须知道他需要的精度如何,如何实现这一目标的准确性和如何检查所要求的精度已经达到。AccuracyrequiredWhensurveyingtoproduceaplan,theaccuracyrequiredisdefinedbythescaleoftheplot,sincethereshouldbenoplottableerrorinthesurveydata.Agooddraughtsmancanplotalengthtowithin0.25mmandso,ifaplanofanareaisrequiredatascaleof1/1000,i.e.,1mmontheplanrepresents1montheground,thesmallestplottabledistanceis0.25m.Thus,forasurveyat1/1000scale,allthemeasurementsmustbetakensuchthattherelativepositionsofanypointwithrespecttoanyothermustbedeterminedto0.25morbetter.当测量一个平面时,精度通常是根据展图比例决定的,因为在绘图中不能有测量误差。一个好的绘图员可以在大约0.25毫米的范围内画图,假如一个地区的图纸比例尺要求是1/1000,即1毫米图上距离代表1米实地距离,那么最小的测距应该是0.25米。因此,对于1/1000比例尺的测量,所有测量必须保证任意一点与其他任一点的相对位置不得大于0.25米。Thespecificationsofsurveysforotherpurposessuchasengineeringworksorpropertyboundarydefinitionmightwellbedeterminedbyengineeringtolerancesorlegalstandards.基于测量规范可能被用于其他目的,如工程测量或财产边界的测量将由工程限差和合法的基准决定。AchievingthespecificationToensurethatthespecificationisachievedtheequipmentandmethodsmustbechosensuchthat,notonlywilltheycollecttherightsortofdata,i.e.,thecorrectcombinationofanglesanddistances,butthatthedatawillbetotherequiredaccuracy.Thereareseveraltypesoferrorthatoccurandaknowledgeoftheirimportanceandcharacteristicsisessentialintheunderstandingofthelimitationsofthetechniquesofmeasurement.Thesalientfeatureswillbestatednowbutfurtherinformationisgiveninlaterchapters.为了确保测量符合规范,仪器和数据应按照以下要求进行,并不是只是得到正确的数据,即更正角和边的关系,从而得到的数据满足精度的要求。在测量中有几种类型的误差,掌握它们的重要性和特性对于理解测量技术的限差是必不可少的。本章主要讲解这些误差的主要特征,后面的章节将提供进一步的阐述。Mistakes粗差Blundersormistakesareofteninaccuratelyreferredtoasgrosserrors.Miscountingthenumberoftapelengthswhenmeasuringalongdistanceortransposingnumberswhenbookingaretwoverysimple,butalltoocommon,examplesofmistakes.Thesetypesofmistakescanoccuratanystageofasurvey,whenobserving,booking,computingorplotting,andtheywouldobviouslyhaveaverydamagingeffectontheresultsifleftuncorrected.However,byfollowingstrictlyawell-plannedobservingprocedureitispossibletoreducethenumberthatoccurandthenindependentchecksateachstageshouldshowupthosethathavebeenmade.Inpractice,noneshouldevergoundetectedanduncorrected.错误经常不准确的理解为粗差。当测量很长一段距离时,读错尺的读数或记录两个简单的数时颠倒它们的位置,这些都是很常见的错误例子。这些类型的误差可以发生在测量任何阶段,当观测,记录,计算和绘图,如果不纠正这些错误,他们在结果上显然有一个非常有害的影响。但是,通过严格周详的观测过程,可能杜绝这些错误的产生,然后在每个阶段应独立检测可以是这些错误显现出来。在实践中,没有不可发现和不可纠正的粗差。Systematicerrors系统误差Systematicerrorsarisefromsourceswhichactinasimilarmanneronobservations.Themethodofmeasurement,theinstrumentsusedandthephysicalconditionsatthetimeofmeasurementmustallbeconsideredinthisrespect.Expansionofsteeltapes,frequencychangesinelectromagneticdistancemeasuring(EDM)instrumentsandcollimationinalevelarejustafewexamplesofpossiblesourcesofsystematicerrors.系统误差的来源于以相同的观测方式。测量时要考虑这些方面,测量的方法、测量仪器和外界环境。钢尺的膨胀,电磁测距仪的频率变化和水准仪的照准情况都是系统误差的可能来源。Theseerrorsareofvitalimportanceinactivitieswhichconsistofaddingtogetherasuccessionofindividualobservations(seesectionsonlevelingandtraversing).Ifalltheindividualmeasurementscontainthesametypeofsystematicerror,whichbytheirnaturealwaysactinthesamedirection,thenthetotaleffectisthesumofthemall.这些误差在由一系列独立观测(参见水准测量和导线测量部分)累加在一起组成的测量值中极为重要,如果所有的独立测量包含相同类型的系统误差,且这些系统误差总是表现出相同的性质,那么总影响是所有这些的总和。Itmustbeensuredthatmeasurementsareasaccurateasrequiredbyremovingtheeffectsofallfactorsthat,ifneglected,wouldresultinasignificanterror.Theerrorscausedbysomefactorscanbeeliminatedwiththecorrectobservingprocedureandotherscounteredbyapplyingcorrections.Systematicerrorsarenotrevealedbytakingthesamemeasurementagainwiththesameinstruments.Theonlywaytocheckadequatelyforsystematicerroristoremeasurethequantitybyanentirelydifferentmethodusingdifferentinstruments.通过消除所有因素的影响确保精度满足要求。如何忽略这些因素将会导致重大的错误。通过正确的观测程序以及纠正计算可以消除误差。通过同样的仪器用同样的方法测量是检测不出系统误差的。唯一能充分检测系统误差就是重测这些量通过使用完全不同的测量方法和测量仪器。RandomerrorsRandomerrorsarereallyallthosediscrepanciesremainingoncetheblundersandsystematicerrorshavebeenremoved.Evenifaquantityismeasuredmanytimeswiththesameinstrumentinthesameway,andifallsourcesofsystematicerrorhavebeenremoved,itisstillhighlyunlikelythatallresultswillbeidentical.Thedifferences,causedmainlybylimitationsofinstrumentsandobservers,arerandomerrors.随机误差事实上是除去粗差和系统误差后。即使测定数量很多次以同样的方式与相同的仪器,和已被删除,如果所有系统误差的来源,它仍然是极不可能的,所有的结果将是相同的。的差异,主要仪器和观察员的限制造成的,是随机的误差。Itisfoundinpracticethattheseerrors,althoughcalledrandom,havethefollowingcharacteristics:(1)smallerrorsoccurmorefrequentlythanlargeones(2)positiveandnegativeerrorsareequallylikelytooccur(3)verylargeerrorsseldomoccur.在实践中发现,这些误差,虽然称为随机的,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