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Definitionofaword1.Awordisaminimumfreeform,thatistosay,thesmallestformthatmayappearinisolation.(Bloomfield,Leonard)2.Awordisafundamentalstructuralunitofasentence.Boundformisonewhichcannotoccuronitswonasaseparateword,e.g.thevariousaffixes.Freeformisonewhichcanoccurasaseparateword.Twoaspectsofwords:external---soundinternal----meaningWhatistherelationshipbetweenthetwoaspects?arbitraryMotivation（理据）Whatismotivation?Itistherelationshipbetweenthestructureofawordanditsmeaning.(事物和现象获得名称的依据，说明词义与事物或现象的明之间的关系。)Threemotivationsofword-structureA.PhoneticmotivationB.GrammaticalmotivationC.SemanticmotivationA.Phoneticmotivation/onomatopoeicmotivation（Onomatopoeia）theformationoruseofwordsthatwerecoinedinimitationofthesoundsassociatedwiththethingsnamed.Someexamples:(In“TheMiddle-EasternBazaar”)tinkling,banging,clashing,creak,grunt,rumbling,OtherexamplesapesbearsbullscatseaglesfrogsgoatscamelgibbergrowlbellowmewscreamcroakbleatgruntMatching1.duck2.flies/bees3.geese4.hens5.horse6.lions7.pig8.snakes9.wolvesa.cackle/gabbleb.roarc.quackd.howle.hissf.buzzg.neigh/snorth.squeal/grunti.cluckcfaigbhedB.Grammaticalmotivation(morphologicalmotivation)Wordswhichwereformedbymeansofgrammaticalstructurebelongtothecategoryofmotivationbygrammar.(compoundsandderivatives)Someexamplesairmail–mailbyairreading-lamp–thelampforreadingminiskirt–asmallskirthopeful–fullofhopeTherearealotofwordswhosestructureareopaque.e.g.1.blackmarketillegalsellingandbuying2.eggheadalearnedperson(inderogatorysense)学究，书生，知识分子SemanticmotivationItisbasedonsemanticfactors.Itisakindofmindassociation.语义理据是一种心理联想，指词义的引申和比喻Typesofsemanticmotivation:metaphormetonymysynecdocheanalogyculturalfactorsMetaphor隐喻是一种比喻，用一种事物暗喻另一种事物，其主要特点是比喻的本体与喻体之间不用like或as作为媒介。判断性暗喻：本体与喻体用verb+tobe来联系。1.Lifeisashortsummer.(Johnson)2.Uther’sheartisacoldstone.(梅林传奇)3.Alltheworld’sastage.(Shakespeare)修饰性隐喻：本体和喻体之间是修饰与被修饰的关系，用of联系。1.aseaoftrouble2.arainofbullet3.ashowerofstones(of含有like之意)4.Hesawclearlyaheadablackwallofnight.5.MarkTwainsuccumbedtotheepidemicofgoldandsilverfeverinNevada.修饰性隐喻还包括一些用作转义的形容词fruitful一词原用作本义，与tree搭配使用。现在可以用作转义，与work连用；blooming（开花）rosebloominghealth(精力充沛)。Hisclothesareloud.俗艳，花哨Heranswerwassmooth.语调和谐，悦耳Hespokewithbitterirony.苦-尖酸的，讽刺的英语报刊中的例句TheywereallowedtoleapfrogthelonglinesoftradersandgetimmediateappointmentswithChineserepresentatives.leapfrog:蛙跳---越过2.TheUSinfluenceandprestigenosedivedinAfrica.nosedive:飞机垂直俯冲骤然下降，一落千丈，江河日下3.Theycameupwithaplanfordrasticpruningofthebloated(膨胀的)institution.pruning:修剪树枝---紧缩4.Thefirststoryisaboutconnectingthedots.(乔布斯在斯坦福大学毕业典礼的演讲)把生命中的点点滴滴串联起来。dots:点---生活中的点点滴滴5.I’mprettysurenoneofthiswouldhavehappenedifIhadn’tbeenfiredfromApple.Itwasawfultastingmedicine,butIguessthepatientneededit.(乔布斯演讲)良药的味道实在太苦了，但我想病人需要这个药。medicine:药---生活中的坎坎坷坷6.WhenIwasyoung,therewasanamazingpublicationcalledTheWholeEarthCatalog,whichwasoneofthebiblesofmygeneration.在我年轻的时候，有一本叫做《整个地球的目录》的振聋发聩的杂志，它是我们那一代人的圣经之一。bibles圣经---必读的经典，权威的书为了是比喻生动活泼，讲话者利用持续隐喻，增强语言的修辞色彩。7.Whenthenewmethodwasintroducedsometeachers,asafriendofmineputit,climbedonthebandwagon,andcouldnotplaytheinstrument.这种新方法刚刚引入，正如我的一位朋友所说，有些教师尽想赶浪头，但又苦于不会使用新方法。bandwagon:“乐队花车”，（走在游行队伍前），这里喻指“潮流，浪头”。climbonthewagon:赶浪头playtheinstrument:持续隐喻，（不会）使用乐器---（不会）使用新方法。Metonymy(借代)当甲事物与乙事物不相类似，但有密切关系时，可以利用这种关系，以乙事物的名称来取代甲事物。1.Hesucceededtothecrown.(royalaffairs)2.I’veneverreadShakespeare.(writer---works)3.Gray-hairsshouldberespected.(oldpeople)4.Thepenismightierthenthesword.(pen–writing;sword–war)5.…theincessantstrugglebetweenthekimonoandminiskirt.kimono:theold,theeast;miniskirt:thenew,thewest6.Herheartruledherhead.情感战胜理智。Heart:feelings,emotions;head/brain:wisdom,intelligence,reason7.911terroristattackonSep11th,2001WallStreet美国垄断资本TheKremlin俄罗斯政府/前苏联政府ThePentagon美国国防部Beijing中国政府Bybuildingoneoftheplanet’smostsuccessfulcompaniesfromhisgarage,heexemplifiedthespiritofAmericaningenuity(独创性).(奥巴马对乔布斯的哀悼)planet:theworldGonefromoursight,butneverourmemories.Gonefromourtouch,butneverourthoughts.(这是乔布斯墓地纪念册上的悼念短句)缘已逝，情难尽；生有涯，思无际。AstanzafromDeaththeLevellerbyJamesShirleyThegloriesofourbloodandstateAreshadows,notsubstantialthings;ThereisnoarmouragainstFate;Deathlayshisicyhandonkings:SceptreandCrownMusttumbledown,AndinthedustbeequalmadeWiththepoorcrookèdscytheandspade.SceptreandCrownscytheandspadeSceptre权杖Crown皇冠----thekingorthequeencrookedscythe弯曲的镰刀spade铁钎----thepeasantsSynecdoche提喻A.Part–whole以局部代全体；以全体代部分1.sail–ship2.hands–menwhodomanuallabour3.Thecasehaderuptedroundmyhead,notlongafterIarrivedhere.head–theperson4.“洋面孔”唱响《黄河大合唱》洋面孔–外国人B.Species–genus种属概念的互相喻指1.Heisapoorcreature.(genusforspecies)creature—ahumanC.Material–thethingmade1.Haveyouanycopper?copper–money/coinmadeofcopper2.MayIuseyourwillow?willow–abaseball/cricketbatD.Anindividual–aclassHeistheNewtonofthiscentury.Newton–thefamousscientistAnalogyItisaprocesswherebywordsarecreatedinimitationofotherwords.仿照原有同类词创造出其对应或近似词。telethon马拉松式的电视节目talkathon马拉松式的访谈节目类比于Marathonfeelie观众能摸得到，看得见，闻得到，有时还能听得见的可感觉艺术品（源出20世纪英国作家AHuxley的讽刺作品《勇敢的新世界》）类比于movieParalympics类比于Olympics类比的分类A.色彩类比B