HealthRisks健康威胁[1]OpinionpollsrepeatedlytellusthattheonlythingAmericansworryaboutmorethantheenvironmentistheirhealth.Thisisentirelyunderstandable,forhealthisobviouslypreferabletoillness.Whatmakestoday'spreoccupationwithhealthslightlysurprisingisthatAmericansarefarhealthiernowthantheyhaveeverbeen.Manydiseasesthatoncestruckterrorintoheartshaveeitherbeencompletelyeliminatedorbroughtundercontrol.AlthoughAIDSisanotableexception,fewnewmasskillershavecomealongtoreplacetheonesthathavebeeneliminated.民意调查一再告诉我们,美国人最为担心的就是他们的健康,其次才是环境问题。这是完全可以理解的,因为身体健康显然比生病要好。美国人现在对健康如此关注,是有点令人吃惊,因为他们目前比以往任何时候都要健康得多。许多曾令人恐惧的疾病现在或者已经彻底根除,或者已得到控制。尽管艾滋病是个显著的例外,但是现在几乎没有什么新的能置许多人于死地的疾病出现,以取代那些已被根除的疾病。[2]Nonetheless,healthandthevariousthreatstoitremaineveryone'spermanentconcern.Afterall,morethanhalfofus(57percent)willdiefromeitherheartdiseaseorcancer,ifcurrenttrendscontinue.然而,健康以及对健康的各种威胁,仍然是人们永久关注的问题。毕竟,如果目前的趋势无法制止的话,我们中将有不止一半(57%)的人将死于心脏病或是癌症。[3]Onemajorproblemwithanycomparisonofhealthrisks—especiallylife-threateningones—isthattheydifferenormouslyintheirimmediacy.Forinstance,AIDS—ifyougetit—willprobablybefatalafteranumberofyears.Cancerinducedbysmokingorexposuretoradiation,ontheotherhand,maytake20to30yearsbeforeitscatastrophiceffectsshowup.Inmakingchoicesabouthealthrisks,therefore,itisimportanttobearinmindthelikelytimelagbetweentakingariskandsufferingitsconsequences.将威胁健康的危险,特别是致命的危险,进行比较时,有一个主要的问题,就是这些危险的紧迫性有很大差异。例如艾滋病,如果你染上的话,很可能几年后就死亡。然而,由吸烟或辐射诱发的癌症,也许要经过20至30年的时间其灾难性的后果才会出现。因此,在对健康的各种危险做出选择时,务必要考虑进行冒险与承受其后果之间的时间间隔。[4]Thosewithamindtolivefortodayareapttobeindifferenttohealthrisksthathaveaverylongincubationperiod.Althoughthisisshort-sighted,itdoesmakesensetodiscountlong-termrisksmorethanshort-termones.Afterall,whenvirtuallyanyofusisconfrontedwiththechoiceofdoingsomethinglikelytokillustodayversusdoing那些一心要“今朝有酒今朝醉”的人们,往往对潜伏期较长的危害不放在心上。尽管这是一种目光短浅的行为,但不理会滞后期长的危险,重视近期危险还是有道理的。毕竟,如果我们真的面临选择,是去做今天就可能使我们丧命的事,还是去做20年后才可能使我们丧命的事,我们往往会两害相比取其轻。somethinglikelytokillusintwodecades,thechoiceisgoingtobethelesserofthetwoevils.[5]Onecommonlyusedmeasuretodealwithsuchproblemsisaconceptcalledyearsofpotentiallifelost(YPLL).Theideaisthatfora25-year-old,doingsomethingthatwillkillhimin5yearsismuchmorecostlythandoingsomethingthatwillkillhimin40years.Bothmayinvolvethesameelementofrisk—thesameprobabilityofeventuallydyingfromthatactivity—butariskthatmaycauseimmediatedamageismuchmorecostlythanoneforwhichthepiperneedn'tbepaidforalongtime.Inthefirstcase,hewillhavehisnormallifespancutshortbyabout45years;inthelattercase,thedeficitisabout5years.Thinkingaboutmattersinthislightinevitablycausesareassessmentofmanyofthethreatstohealth.Forinstance,heartdiseaseisthesinglelargestkillerofAmericans,wayinfrontofcancerorstrokes.However,heartdiseasetendstostriketheelderlyinmuchgreaterproportionsthanyoungerpeople.Cancer,bycontrast,killsfewerpeoplebuttendstostrikesomewhatearlierthanheartdisease.Hence,moreYPLLsarelosttocancerthantoheartdisease—despitethegreaterincidenceoffatalheartcases.Specifically,cancersclaimabout25percentmoreYPLLsthanheartdisease(ifwedefinetheYPLLasayearoflifelostbeforeage65).对待这类问题有种常用的计算方法,就是考虑可能少活的年数(YPLL)。其意思是,对一个25岁的人来说,去做一件使自己五年后丧生的事要比做一件40年后丧生的事“代价高昂”得多。二者同样都具有危险因素——即最终因从事某事而导致死亡的可能性相同——但是,会马上引起伤害的危险,要比一个很长时间不需付出代价的危险要昂贵得多。在第一种情形下,他的正常寿命减少了约45年,而在第二种情形下,减少了约5年。从这种角度看问题必然会对威胁健康的许多因素进行重新评估。例如,心脏病是夺去美国人性命的头号杀手,远远超过癌症或中风。然而,老年人患心脏病的比例大大超出了年轻人。相比之下,癌症的死亡人数虽然要少于心脏病的死亡人数,但患癌症的人群比较年轻。所以,尽管心脏病死亡率要大,但癌症损失的YPLL要比心脏病多。具体来讲,与心脏病相比,癌症让人大约多损失了25%的YPLL(如果我们将YPLL定义为65岁以前寿命缩短的年头)。[6]TheconceptofYPLLshasanimportant,ifcontroversial,influenceonissuesinhealthcareeconomics.Itisfrequentlyarguedthatmoneydevotedtomedicalresearchoncuringdiseasesshouldbedivideduponthebasisofthenumberofliveslosttoeachdisease.Thus,somecriticsofthemassivelevelsoffundingdevotedtoAIDSresearchclaimthat—comparedtokillerssuchasheartdiseaseandcancer—AIDSreceivesadisproportionatelyhighsupport.ThatcriticismfailstoconsiderthefactthatAIDS,YPLL这一概念,尽管人们对它还有争议,却对保健经济学有着重要影响。人们经常争辩说,用于医学研究攻克疾病的资金应该按每种疾病死亡人数的多少来分配。因此,一些人士抨击将大量资金用于艾滋病研究。他们认为与其他致命的疾病如心脏病和癌症相比,艾滋病得到了不成比例的高额资助。该批评没有考虑到这样一个事实:由于艾滋病的主要受害者为二三十岁的年轻人,尽管每年只造成20,000人死亡——该数字本身也不小了——但是艾滋病引起的YPLL要大得多,远比简单的死亡人数更值得我们byvirtueofstrikingpeopleprincipallyintheir20sand30s,generatesfarmoreYPLLsthanthebarefigureof20,000deathsperyear,badasthatis,mightsuggest.Putdifferently,findingacureforAIDSwouldbelikelytoaddabout25-30yearstothelifeofeachpotentialvictim.Findingacureforheartdisease,althoughitmightsavefarmorelives,wouldprobablyaddonlyanother5-10yearstothelifeofitsaveragevictim.重视。换句话说,找到治疗艾滋病的方法,将可能增加每位潜在的艾滋病患者25至30年的寿命。找到治疗心脏病的方法,虽然可能拯救更多人的生命,但对每位受害者来说只能增加平均5到10年的寿命。[7]Theassessmentoftheseriousnessofariskchanges,dependinguponwhetherweaskhowmanylivesitclaimsorhowmanyYPLLsitinvolves.Someofthedifferencesarequitestriking.Forinstance,accidentaldeathsappearrelativelyinsignificantcomparedtocancerandheartdiseasewhenwejustcountthedeathscaused.Butoncewelookatthenumberoflostyears,accidentsloomintofirstplaceamongthekillersofAmericans.Thesedatashowthatweneedtoasknotonlyhowlargeariskisbut