戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter-6

Chapter6PragmaticsSomebasicnotionsSpeechacttheoryPrincipleofconversationCross-culturalpragmaticfailureWhatispragmatics?Pragmaticsstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.TheviewoftraditionalsemanticsThemeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.语言的意义被认为是内在的、固有的，即依附于语言自身的特征。因此，词的意义和句子的意义都应该从语言运用中孤立出来加以研究。Pragmaticsvs.semanticsWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.ContextItisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning(句子意义与话语意义)Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisabstractandisolatedfromcontext.Ifthesentenceisutteredinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,itbecomesanutterance.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.TherelationshipbetweenthetwoThemeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Speechacttheory(言语行为理论)ItwasproposedbytheBritishphilosopherJohnAustin(约翰·奥斯汀)inthelate50’softhe20thcentury.Accordingtothespeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakmightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.locutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.(传达字面意义)illocutionaryact(言外行为):theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.(表明说话意图)perlocutionaryact(言后行为):theeffectoftheutterance.(话语产生的效果)Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(塞尔对言语行为的分类)JohnSearle:AmericanphilosopherlinguistOneofthecontributionsSearlehasmadeishisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories:Fivegeneralcategories1.representatives(阐述类):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.Inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhimselfbelievestobetrue,suchasstating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing.Examples:P83:(6-9)(6-10)2.directives(指令类):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,suchasinviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering.Examples:Openthewindow!You’dbattergototheclinic.Yourmoneyoryourlife!Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?3.commissives(承诺类):committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.(对未来的某个行为作出承诺)Thatistosay,whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalcases.Examples:Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.4.expressives(表达类):expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.Examples:I’msorryforthemessIhavemade.It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.5.declarations(宣告类):bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Examples:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Ifireyou!Indirectspeechacts(间接言语行为)ItwasproposedbyJohnSearle.AccordingtoSearle,whenaspeakerisusingindirectlanguage,heisperformingtwospeechactssimultaneously:primaryspeechact(首要言语行为)andsecondaryspeechact(次要言语行为).Theprimaryspeechactisthespeaker’sgoalofcommunicationwhilethesecondaryspeechactisthemeansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.Example:P85:(6-28)Principleofconversation(会话原则)PaulGrice(格赖斯),anAmericanphilosopherandlogician,holdsthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Twokindsofimpliedmeaningorimplicature:conventionalimplicature(规约含意)andnon-conventionalimplicature(非规约含意).particularizedconversationalimplicature(特殊会话含意)---shouldbeinferredbythehearerwithreferencetothecontextofcommunication.CooperatePrinciple(CP)合作原则GeneralPrinciple:P87Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.在参与交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认的目的或方向。FourmaximsofCP:Themaximofquantity(数量准则)Themaximofquality(质量准则)Themaximofrelation(关系准则)Themaximofmanner(方式准则)Themaximofquantity(数量准则)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)你所说的话应包含(当前交谈意图)所需要的信息Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息Themaximofquality(质量准则)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要说自知是假的话Donorsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要说缺乏根据的话Themaximofrelation(关系准则)Berelevant.要有关联性Themaximofmanner(方式准则)Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免表达晦涩Avoidambiguity.避免歧义Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).要简练(避免不必要的冗繁)Beorderly.要条理清晰Conversationalimplicature(会话含意)Conversationalimplicatureoccursonlywhenthemaximsare“flouted”.Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,i.e.boththespeakerandthehe