第二语言学习策略

LanguageLearningStrategies:AnOverviewforL2TeachersAnoverviewoflanguagelearningstrategies(LLS)forsecondandforeignlanguage(L2/FL)teachers.BackgroundofLLSandLLStraining,discussesathreestepapproachteachersmayfollowinusingLLSintheirclasses,andsummariseskeyreflectionsandquestionsforfutureresearchonthisaspectofL2/FLeducation.Agradualbutsignificantshiftoverthelastfewdecadesresultinginlessemphasisonteachersandteachingandgreaterstressonlearnersandlearning.Thischangereflectedinlanguageeducationandappliedlinguistics:theNortheastConference(1990)entitledShiftingtheInstructionalFocustotheLearnerandannualLearners'ConferencesheldinconjuctionwiththeTESLCanadaconventionsince1991,tokeyworksonthelearner-centredcurriculum(Nunan,1988,1995)andlearner-centrednessaslanguageeducation(Tudor,1996).LearningStrategiesearlydefinitionsreflecttherootsofLSincognitivescience,essentialassumptionsthathumanbeingsprocessinformationandthatlearninginvolvessuchinformationprocessing.WeinsteinandMayer(1986)definedlearningstrategies(LS)broadlyasbehavioursandthoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearningwhichareintendedtoinfluencethelearner'sencodingprocess(p.315).LaterMayer(1988)morespecificallydefinedLSasbehavioursofalearnerthatareintendedtoinfluencehowthelearnerprocessesinformation(p.11).Clearly,LSareinvolvedinalllearning,regardlessofthecontentandcontext.LSarethususedinlearningandteachingmath,science,history,languagesandothersubjects,bothinclassroomsettingsandmoreinformallearningenvironments.LanguageLearningStrategiesDefinedWithinL2/FLeducation,anumberofdefinitionsofLLShavebeenusedbykeyfiguresinthefield.Earlyon,Tarone(1983)definedaLSasanattempttodeveloplinguisticandsociolinguisticcompetenceinthetargetlanguage--toincoporatetheseintoone'sinterlanguagecompetence(p.67).Rubin(1987)LSarestrategieswhichcontributetothedevelopmentofthelanguagesystemwhichthelearnerconstructsandaffectlearningdirectly(p.22).O'MalleyandChamot(1990)definedLSasthespecialthoughtsorbehavioursthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation(p.1).(Oxford,1990a),Oxford(1992/1993)providesspecificexamplesofLLSi.e.,InlearningESL,Trang(1)watchesU.S.TVsoapoperas,(2)guessesthemeaningofnewexpressions(3)predictingwhatwillcomenext...languagelearningstrageties–specificactions,behaviours,steps,ortechniquesthatstudents(oftenintentionally)usetoimprovetheirprogressindevelopingL2skills.Thesestrategiescanfacilitatetheinternalization,storage,retrieval,oruseofthenewlanguage.Strategiesaretoolsfor(4)theself-directedinvolvementnecessaryfordevelopingcommunicativeability.(Oxford,1992/1993,p.18).Fromthesedefinitions,achangeovertimemaybenoted:fromtheearlyfocusontheproductofLSS(linguisticorsociolinguisticcompetence),toagreateremphasisontheprocessesandthecharacteristicsofLLS.LLSaredistinctfromlearningstyles,whichrefermorebroadlytoalearner'snatural,habitual,andpreferredway(s)ofabsorbing,processing,andretainingnewinformationandskills(Reid,1995,p.viii),thereisalsoobviousrelationshipbetweenlanguagelearningstyleandusualorpreferredlanguagelearningstrategies.WhataretheCharacteristicsofLLS?Althoughtheterminologyisnotalwaysuniform,withsomewritersusingthetermslearnerstrategies(Wendin&Rubin,1987),otherslearningstrategies(O'Malley&Chamot,1990;Chamot&O'Malley,1994),andstillotherslanguagelearningstrategies(Oxford,1990a,1996),thereareanumberofbasiccharacteristicsinthegenerallyacceptedviewofLLS.First,LLSarelearnergenerated;theyarestepstakenbylanguagelearners.Second,LLSenhancelanguagelearningandhelpdeveloplanguagecompetence,asreflectedinthelearner'sskillsinlistening,speaking,reading,orwritingtheL2orFL.Third,LLSmaybevisible(behaviours,steps,techniques,etc.)orunseen(thoughts,mentalprocesses).Fourth,LLSinvolveinformationandmemory(vocabularyknowledge,grammarrules,etc.).WhendiscussingLLS,Oxford(1990a)andotherssuchasWendenandRubin(1987)note(5)adesireforcontrolandautonomyoflearningCohen(1990)insiststhatonlyconsciousstrategiesareLLS,andthattheremustbeachoiceinvolvedonthepartofthelearner.TransferofastrategyfromonelanguageorlanguageskilltoanotherisarelatedgoalofLLS,(Pearson(1988)andSkehan(1989)).Oxford’stwelvekeyfeatures.Inadditiontothecharacteristicsnotedabove,shestatesthatLLS:(6)allowlearnerstobecomemoreself-directed(7)expandtheroleoflanguageteachers(8)areproblem-oriented(9)involvemanyaspects,notjustthecognitive(10)canbetaught(11)areflexible(12)areinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors.(Oxford,1990a,p.9)WhyareLLSImportantforL2/FLLearningandTeaching?Within'communicative'approachestolanguageteachingakeygoalisforthelearnertodevelopcommunicativecompetenceinthetargetL2/FL,andLLScanhelpstudentsindoingso.Animportantdistinctionexists,however,betweencommunicationandlanguagelearningstrategies.CommunicationstrategiesareusedbyspeakersintentionallyandconsciouslyinordertocopewithdifficultiesincommunicatinginaL2/FL(Bialystok,1990).ThetermLLSisusedmoregenerallyforallstrategiesthatL2/FLlearnersuseinlearningthetargetlanguage,andcommunicationstrategiesa