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´÷쿶°ÓïÑÔѧÆÚÄ©¿¼ÊÔ¸´Ï°×ÊÁÏ.txtÓïÑÔѧÆÚÄ©¿¼ÊÔ¸´Ï°×ÊÁÏChapter1Introduction1.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Thescopeoflinguistics:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,sociolinguistics,psycholinguistics.3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics1)Prescriptivevs.descriptiveIfalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor¡°correctandstandard¡±behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.2)Synchronicvs.diachronicAlanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.3)SpeechandwritingSpeechismoreimportant:a.fromlinguisticevolutionb.neededtorecordspeech,canbespokenbutmanylanguagesstillnotwriting.c.playagreaterrolethanwritingineverydaycommunication.4).LanguageandparoleLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.5)CompetenceandperformanceCompetenceastheidealuser¡¯sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.6)TraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguisticsModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar:a.linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.b.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewrittenc.ModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.5.Thefeatureoflanguage:a.languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.b.Languageisarbitrary.c.Languageissymbolic.6.Designfeatures:a.Arbitrariness:thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.b.Productivity:itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.c.Duality:languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.d.Displacement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awaypalces.e.CulturetransmissionChaptertwoPhonology1.Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld¡¯slanguages.2.Threebranchesofphonetics:articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphoneticsandacousticphonetics3.Threeimportantareasoforgansofspeech:Pharyngealcavity----thethroatTheoralcavity---themouthNasalcavity----thenose4.Thedifferencebetweenbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscription:Broadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Narrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.5.TheclassificationofEnglishspeechsounds:twoboardcategories:vowelsandconsonants.andtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.7.TypesofEnglishconsonants:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasals,glides,bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal.8.ClassificationofEnglishvowels:Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,centralandbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.9.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.10.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.11.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.12.Allophones:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.13.Minimalpairs:whentwodifferentformsareidentical£¨ÍêÈ«Ïàͬ£©ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.(till,kill)14.Sequentialrules:therearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.15.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:a.Thefirstphonememustbe/s/b.Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/c.Thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/16.Assimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby¡°copying¡±afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.17.Deletionrule:asoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.18.Suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.19.Twokindsofstress£ºwordstressandsentencestressSentencestress:therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence20.Tone:pitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.21.Intonation:whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.a.falling-toneb.risingtonec.fall-risetoneChapter3Morphology1.Closedclasswords:conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns£¨´ú´Ê£©consistofrelativelyfewwordsandhavebeenreferredto.2.Morphology:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,an