Jews

Jewsi.Introductionii.WhoAretheJews?iii.WorldWarIIandtheHolocaust(大屠杀)iv.ImmigrationtoPalestinev.TheCreationofIsraelvi.TheContemporarySituationvii.Arab-IsraeliConflictI.IntroductionJews,apeoplewhohavemaintainedadistinctculturalidentityoriginallybasedontheideaofacovenant(契约，盟约),orspecialrelationship,withGod.TheJewishpeopleareamongtheoldestofthemanypeoplesknowntohistory.Theiroriginsdatebackatleast3,000years,andperhapsevenfurther.Duringthislengthy(冗长的)periodJewshavesettledinallpartsoftheworldandhavehadanimpactonmanycivilizations.TheJewishreligion,Judaism（犹太教）,hasexerted(向外施展)influencefarbeyonditsownadherents(信徒，追随者).Christianity(基督教)grewoutofJudaism,andIslam（伊斯兰教）acceptedmanyofthetraditionsandpracticesofJudaism.KnowledgeofthehistoryoftheJewsandtheirculturecontributestoafullerunderstandingofthehistoryoftheWesternworldanditsspirituallife.II.WhoAretheJews?ThewordJewcameintoexistenceinthe5thcenturyBCtorefertotheinhabitantsoftheprovinceofJudea(nowpartofIsrael).Itderives(起源)fromtheHebrewword(希伯来语),yehudi,andtheGreek,ioudaios,forJudeans.IntimeitwasalsoappliedtopeoplewhooriginatedinJudeabutmovedelsewhere.TheJudeansweredescendedfromtheIsraelites,anancientpeoplewhoseoriginsareshrouded(隐藏的)inmystery.A.TheFirstJewsHistoriansknowlittleabouttheearlyhistoryoftheIsraelites,buttheydoknowthatatsomepointtheIsraelitescametoseethemselvesasbearers(送信人，搬运者)ofauniquecovenantwithasingleGodwhomtheycalledbymanynames,mostimportantly,Yahweh.Yahwehprovidedthemwithalawandwayoflife,aswellaswithaterritory—thelandofIsrael—inwhichtocarryoutthatwayoflife.Acceptanceofthiscovenantandmonotheism(beliefinasingleGod)(一神论)distinguishedtheIsraelitesfrommostoftheircontemporaries(同时代的人),whobelievedinmultiplegods,apracticeknownaspolytheism(多神论),andworshipedidols,apracticeknownasidolatry.IsraelitesoftenseparatedthemselvesfrompeoplewhodidnotshareinthiscovenantwiththeironeGod.Inthe6thcenturyBC,theNeo-Babylonian(新巴比伦的)EmpireconqueredthelandoftheIsraelitesandsentmuchofthepopulationofitssouthernprovince,Judea,toBabylonia(巴比伦尼亚).TheIsraeliteexiles(被流放者)appeartobethemostdirectancestorsoftheJewishpeople.DuringtheirexilethenatureoftheIsraelites’identitychangedastheycametoseethemselvesprimarilyasareligiousgroupratherthansimplyasanexiledgroupwithacommonethnicbackground.Sometimeafterthe5thcenturyBCitwaspossibletobecomeaJew,althoughwhatconversionmeantatthattimeorhowitwasdoneremainsunclear.AncientsourcesspeakofindividualPersians(波斯人),Greeks,Romans,andmembersofArabtribesbecomingJewsduringthecenturiesthatfollowedtheBabylonianCaptivity.B.MaintainingJewishIdentityReligion,ethnicidentity,andlanguagehaveallplayedimportantrolesinmaintainingJewishidentity.BecauseJudaismrelatedtosomanyaspectsoflife,includingthoseconsideredsecular(长期的)inothercultures,beingaJewledtoastronggrouporethnicidentity.Forexample,theHebrew（希伯来）Bible(knowntoChristiansastheOldTestament(遗嘱))laiddowndietary(饭食的)lawsandindicatedwhichfoodswereconsideredkosher(fit)forconsumption.Jewsalsohadtheirownwrittenlanguage,Hebrew,anddistinctspokenlanguagesdeveloped.ThebestknownofthesespokenlanguagesisYiddish（依地语）,whichisbasedontheGermanlanguage.C.JewishIdentityTodayWhatconstitutesJewishidentitycameintoquestionduringthe19thand20thcenturies,however.SomeJewstoday,especiallyinIsrael,rejecttheJewishreligionbutinsistthattheybelongtoadistinctethnicornationalcommunity.OtherJews,especiallyintheWest,rejecttheethniccomponentofJewishidentitywhileclaimingtheyfollowadistinctreligion.StillothersintheWestdefinethemselvesasculturalJews,meaningthattheylackareligiousaffiliation(联系，从属关系)andfeelpartofsomeotherethnicgroup,buttheybelievethereisadistinctiveJewishcultureinwhichtheyparticipate.AndinallpartsoftheworldthereareJewswhoinsistthatJewsarebothanethnicandareligiousgroup.Finally,therearethosewhoinsistthatJewishreligiouslawdefinesJewishidentity.Inthisview,anyoneborntoaJewishmother,oranyonewhohasproperlyconvertedtotheJewishfaith,isafull-fledged(完全有资格的)memberoftheJewishpeopleandreligion.Thus,todaythereisnoconsensus(一致的意见)onthedefinitionofaJew.Themultiplicity(多样性)ofJewishidentitiesmakesitdifficulttoprovidereliablepopulationfigures.MostcontemporaryestimatesplacethepopulationofJewsworldwideatabout14million.ThetwolargestcommunitiesofJewsareintheUnitedStatesandIsrael.About5.9millionJewsliveintheUnitedStates,andabout4.6millionliveinIsrael.About350,000JewsliveinCanada,primarilyinTorontoandMontréal.Sizable(相当大的)JewishcommunitiesarefoundinArgentina,Australia,Russia,SouthAfrica,Ukraine(乌克兰),andWesternEurope.IneverycountryotherthanIsrael,theJewishpopulationisstagnant(停滞的)orshrinking,primarilyasaresultoflowbirthratesbutalsobecauseofmigrationandassimilation(同化)intothedominantculture.TheriseofNationalSocialism(Nazism)inGermanyforeverchangedthehistoryoftheJews.ImmediatelyafterHitlerbecameGermanchancellor(长官，大臣)in1933,theNazigovernmentsetouttorollbacktheemancipation(解放)ofJews,deprivingJewsofbasiccivilrights,denyingthemaccesstojobs,establishingboycottsofJewishbusinesses,andpurging(清洗)thecivilserviceanduniversitiesofJews.Thesemeasuresturnedouttobea