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语言学导论复习材料11.Whatarethecategoriesoflexicalmeaning?Lexicalmeaningincludes:a)referentialmeaning(alsodenotativemeaning).b)Associativemeanings.Referentialmeaningisthecentralmeaninganditismorestableanduniversal.Associativemeaningsaremeaningsaremeaningsthathingeonreferentialmeaning,whicharelessstableandmoreculture-specific.Typesofassociativemeanings:connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,collectivemeaning2.Whatarethecomponentsofmetaphor?Therearetwopositionsonthefunctionofmetaphors:a)theclassicalviewseesmetaphorarhetoricaldevice;b)anotherviewholdsmetaphoracognitivedevice.Metaphors一spossiblepreciselybecausetherearemetaphorsinaperson’sconceptualsystems.Allmetaphorsarecomposedoftwodomains:targetdomain(alsotenor)andsourcedomain(vehicle).3.Howdoestransformationalgrammaraccountforsentence-relatedness?1)AccordingtoChomsky,agrammarasthetacitsharedknowledgeofallspeakersisasystemoffiniterulesbywhichaninfinitenumberofsentencescanbegenerated.Heattemptstoaccountforthisaspectofsyntaxbypostulatingthatdeepstructuresandsurfacestructures.2)Deepstructuresarethebasicstructuresgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.3)Surfacestructuresarederivedstructures,thestructuresofsentencesthatweactuallyspeak.Surfacestructuresarederivedfromdeepstructuresthroughtransformationalruleswhichincludereplacement,insertion,deletionandcoping,etc.4.Onwhatbasisdolinguistsregardhumanlanguageasspecies-specific(uniquetohumans)?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Manyphilosophersandlinguistsbelievethatlanguageisuniquetoman.Languageisahumantraitthatsetsusapartfromotherlivingcreatures.Theyspelloutanumberoffeaturesoflanguagewhicharenotfoundinanimalcommunicationsystems.Thesefeatures:creativity,duality,arbitrariness,displacement,culturaltransmission,interchangeabilityandreflexivity.Theseareuniversalfeaturespossessedbyallhumanlanguages.Althoughsomeanimalcommunicationsystemspossess,toaverylimiteddegree,oneoranotherofthesefeaturesexceptcreativityandduality,noneisfoundtohaveallthefeatures.Onthisbasislinguiststendtoconcludethathumanlanguagesarequalitativelydifferent语言学导论复习材料1formanimalcommunicationsystems.5.Whatpartofsyntaxcanphrasestructurerulesaccountforandwhattheycannot?Phrasestructurerulesarerulesthatspecifytheconstituentsofsyntacticcategories.Theserulesarepartofspeakers’syntacticknowledge,whichgoverntheconstructionofsentences.Therearealotofpartofsyntacticknowledge,includingstructuralambiguity(whichstringsofwordshavemorethanonemeaning),wordsorder(differentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings),grammaticalrelations(whatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly),recursion(therepeateduseofthesamerulestocreateinfinitesentences),sentencerelatedness(sentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated),andsyntacticcategories(aclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality)etc.Phrasestructurerulescanaccountforstructuralambiguity,wordorder,grammaticalrelations,recursion,andsyntacticcategories;buttheycannotaccountforsentencerelatedness.6.HowdosociolinguistsclassifythevarietiesofEnglish?Thetermvarietyisthelabelgiventotheformofalanguageusedbyanygroupofspeakersorusedinaparticularfield.Avarietyischaracterizedbythebasiclexicon,phonology,syntaxsharedbymembersofthegroup.Varietiesofalanguageareoffourtypes:thestandardvariety,regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.Aregionaldialectisavarietyofalanguagespokenbypeoplelivinginanarea.TheEnglishlanguagehasmanyregionaldialects.BritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish,AustralianEnglish.IndianEnglish,SouthAfricanEnglish,etc.areallregionalvarietiesofthelanguage.Onedialectisdistinctivefromanotherphonologically,lexicallyandgrammatically.7.Whatarethefunctionsofsupra-segmentalfeatures?Thephoneticfeatures,distinctiveornon-distinctive,thatwehavediscussedsofarmaybepropertiesofsinglesegments.Inthissectionwewilllookatfeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorsequenceoftwoormoresegments,whicharecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesarealsodistinctivefeatures.Theyarefoundinsuchunitsofsyllables,words,phrasesandsentences.Themostwidelyfoundsuprasegmentalfeaturesarestress,intonationandtone.Stressisdefinedastheperceivedprominence(comparativeloudness)ofoneormoresyllableelementsoverothersinaword.Thisdefinitionimpliesthatstressisarelativenotion.Intonation:whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Thesamesentenceuttered语言学导论复习材料1withdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,riseandfall-rise.Toneisthevariationofpitchatthewordleveltodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Intonationandstressgenerallyoccursimultaneouslyinutterance.Whenintonationcontourfallsonasyllable,thenucleusisstressedandthevowelisnaturallylengthenedabit.Inthemeantime,thereisalittlepauseafterthesyllable.Thissimultaneousfunctioningofthefeaturesservestohighlighttheinformationfocus,ortoeliminateambiguity(doubleinterpretationsofth