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Chapter2TheThreeAestheticCriteriainEnglishRhetoricLogos(逻辑)Pathos(情感)Ethos(人格)2.1Logosandlogicalthinking1)Whatislogicalthinking?Logos(逻各斯),similarto“道”inancientChinesephilosophy西方哲学中的形而上学（metaphysics）研究的核心。Whenappliedtowritingandspeaking,logosreferstotheuseoflogicalreasoningtopersuadetheaudienceorreaders.2)Whatiseffectivelogicalthinking?Itcomesfromsoundlogicalthinking,expressedinrelevantmaterial,properorganization,coherentsentencesandwellchosenwords(appropriatelyconveyone’sintendedmeanings).Example:TousChinese,learningaforeignlanguageisnotaneasything.Afterall,itisdifferentfromourmothertongue.Otherscanlearnitwell,whynotwe?Question:Istheabovepassagesoundinlogic?Revisedversion:LearningEnglishisnotaneasythingforaChinesestudentlikeme,becauseEnglishisquitedifferentfrommymothertongueinspelling,pronunciationandgrammar.However,sincemanyotherChinesestudentshavelearnedEnglishwell,whycan’tI?Iwillworkharderandimprovemymethodsoflearningandtrytohaveagoodcommandofthisusefulforeignlanguageassoonaspossible.3)Formallogicandsyllogism(三段论)a)Informallogic,therearetwobasicapproachestologicalreasoning:deduction(演绎)e.g.Whenyounoticearingaroundthemoonandsay,“Weareinforsomebadweather”.Theconclusionisbasedontwopropositions:(1)aringaroundthemoonforecastsbadweather;(2)thereisaringaroundthemoon.induction(归纳)b)Syllogismisaspecialwayofdeductivereasoning.Itconsistsofamajorpremise,aminorpremiseandaconclusion.主要包括如下几种：(i)Thehypotheticalsyllogism(假言三段论):Major:IfP,thenQIfP,thenQMinor:PnotQConclusion:ThereforeQThereforenotPExample:Ifthelinesofapoemdonotrhyme,thepoemmaybecalledblankverse(无韵诗);asthispoemisrhymeless,youmaycallitblankverse.(ii)Theeither-orsyllogism:Major:EitherAorB(notboth)EitherAorB(notboth)Minor:AnotAConclusion:ThereforenotBThereforeBExample:Wecouldhavedriventhereortakenataxi.Unfortunatelyourcarbrokedownthatday,andsowewenttherebytaxi.(iii)ThecategoricalsyllogismMajor:AllM’sareP’sMinor:SisanMConclusion:ThereforeSisaPExample:Allmenaremortalcreatures.Socratesisaman.Therefore,Socratesisamortalcreature.2.2Pathos1)Meaningsofpathosa)Originally,theterm“pathos”referredtotheemotionsingeneralaspeakertriedtoarouseintheaudience.Inmodernrhetoric,itrangesfromthestudyofthepsychologyoftheaudienceorreaderstotheapplicationoftechnologytoconvincethembyemotionalappeals.b)Theemotionalappealsincludemoralanger,ambition,excitement,fear,happiness,pityandotherfeelings.Byplayingonsuchfeelings,thewriterintendstochangethebeliefsandbehaviorofhisorherreaders.2)Pathosinusetodaya)theuseisverypopular:advertising,publicrelations,image-making,education,“affectiveeducation(情感教育)”，“emotioninvestment(感情投资)”b)effectivepathosdependonthewittyhandlingoflanguage:exposure(揭发)eloquence（文采）(i)Exposureevokesmoralindignation:condemningtheunjustreality,revealingthedifferencebetweenhowthingsshouldbeandhowtheyare.Example:Iammorethanangry.Ididnotgivebirthtomyoneandonlysontohavehimsnatchedawayfromme18yearslater.Mychildhasbeenlovedandcaredforandtaughtrightfromwrongandwillnotbefedintoanyegomaniac'swarmachine.Our18-to25-year-oldshavenotbroughtthisworldtoitspresentsorrystate.Menovertheageof35,downthroughthecenturies,havebroughtushere,andwewomenhavebeeninsilentaccord.Well,thisisonewoman,onemother,whosaysno.Ididnotgothroughthemagnificentagonyofchildbirthtohavethatgloriousyounglifesnuffedout.Untilthepresidents,premiers,supremerulers,politburos,senatorsandcongressmenoftheworldarereadytophysically,asopposedtoverbally,leadtheworldintocombat,theycanbloodywellforgetmychild.Unitemothers!Don'tthrowyoursonsanddaughtersaway.Sometime,somewhere,womenhavejustgottosayno.No.No.No.No.No.Nevermychild.-LouiseM.Saylor(LetterpublishedintheWashingtonPost,January28,1980.)ii)Eloquencereferstolanguageusedpowerfullyandfluentlytoappealtopeople’snobleremotions:thesenseofhonor,loveofone’scountryandhometown,desiretoreachtowardvirtue.Example:MartinLutherKing“Ihaveadream”.3)Combinationoflogosandpathoscanbemoreeffectiveandpowerful.2.3Ethos1)Meaningsofethosindictionary:a)character,sentiment,moralnature,beliefs,standardsthatcharacterizeagroup,acommunity,apeople,oranideology,orthespiritthatmotivatestheideas,customs,orpracticesofapeopleoraregion;b)Thecomplexoffundamentalvaluesthatunderlinethemajorpatternsofthoughtorbehaviorinanyparticularculture,society,orinstitution;c)(Aristotelian)Thecharacterorpersonalityofahumanbeing:balancebetweenthepassionsandcaution,orthecontrastbetweenone’sthoughtandaction2)Meaningsinmodernrhetorica)thoroughgoingstudyofvariousschoolsofphilosophicalviewsondifferentvalues;b)personalstanding,academicauthority,andmoralqualitiesofthewriterorspeaker,toguaranteeorraisethewriter’sorspeaker’scredibilityandacceptabilitye.g.textbook;preface;titles,positions,address,faxandphonenumbersonone’snamecard;conference;2.4Fallaciesinlogicalreasoning1)Commonerrorsinlogicalreasoninga)Nonsequitur(不合逻辑的推论)Theconclusiondoesnotfollowfromtheevidencepresented.Inanonsequitur,theconclusioncouldbeeithertrueorfalse,buttheargumentisfallaciousbecausethereisadisconnectionbetweenthepremiseandtheconclusion.Ineverydayspeech,anonsequiturisas