The Cooperative Principle

TheCooperativePrinciple刘宏伟蒋明成曲牧昆朱传文09本一•ⅠCP:theprinciple•ⅡCP:themaxims•ⅢNon-observanceofthemaxims•ⅣCalculatingconversationalimplicaturesintroduction•Objective:Givenashortdialoguewhichmakesuseofthemaxims,identifythemaximinplay,andexplainyouranswer.Ifapplicable,explaintheimplicationcreated.•Gricenoticedthatindailyconversationspeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.•Abasicunderlyingassumptionwemakewhenwespeaktooneanotheristhatwearetryingtocooperatewithoneanothertoconstructmeaningfulconversations.ThisassumptionisknownastheCooperativePrinciple.AsstatedinH.P.Grice’s“LogicandConversation”(1975):TheCooperativePrinciple•Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Grice,H.P.(1975).LogicandConversation.InMartinich,A.P.(ed).PhilosophyofLanguage.(pp.165-175)NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.•Inotherwords,weasspeakerstrytocontributemeaningful,productiveutterancestofurthertheconversation.Itthenfollowsthat,aslisteners,weassumethatourconversationalpartnersaredoingthesame.Youcanthinkofreasonswhysomeonemightbeuncooperativeinconversation.Maybethey’rebeinginterrogatedforinformationtheydon’twanttogiveup;Maybetheyhatethepersonthey’retalkingto;Maybethey’rejustcrazyButinthevastmajorityofconversations,it’ssafetoassumethatbothparticipantsaretryingtobecooperative.Butinthevastmajorityofconversations,it’ssafetoassumethatbothparticipantsaretryingtobecooperative.•Thisassumption(thatthecooperativeprincipleholds,andthepeoplewe’respeakingtoaretryingtocooperate)explainstwothings:•(i)whyspeecherrorsareoftenignored(orevengounnoticed)inconversation.Aslongasthemeaningthespeakeristryingtogetacrossisclear,thelistenerusuallygivesthemthebenefitofthedoubtandfocusesonthemeaning.•(ii)whywecanfindmeaninginstatementswhich,onthesurface,seemridiculous,untrueorunrelated(i.e.metaphors,sarcasm,overstatement,understatement,etc.)Ratherthanassumingthatourconversationalpartnerislying,crazy,orspeakingatrandom,weassumethey’retryingtogetacrosssomemeaning,andwecanfigureoutwhatthatmeaningis.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)•WecanhavealookataChineseexamplefromafilm.Aboysaystoagirl“你不戴眼镜的时候很漂亮”,andthegirlimmediatelyresponds“我戴眼镜的时候一定很丑了”,Nowtheboymayhavereasontodenythatthegirl'sinterpretationiswhathesaid.Buthemaynotbeabletodenyinallfairnessthatthisis,atleastpartly,whatheimplied.•Inordertoavoidthelogicaluseofimplication,whichwetouchedoninthesectiononlogicalsemantics,Gricecoinedthetermimplicature.Andheexploredthequestionhowpeoplemanagetoconveyimplicature,whichisnotexplicitlyexpressed.•Hisansweristhatthereissomeregularityinconversation.Ourtalkexchangesdonotnormallyconsistofasuccessionofdisconnectedremarks,andwouldnotberationaliftheydid.Theyarecharacteristically,tosomedegreeatleast,cooperativeefforts;andeachparticipantrecognizesinthem,tosomeextent,acommonpurposeorsetofpurposes,oratleastamutuallyaccepteddirection(1975:45).Inotherwords,weseemtofollowsomeprinciplelikethefollowing:•Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged(ibid.).AndthisprincipleisknownastheCOOPERATIVEPRINCIPLE,orCPforshortTheMaximsofConversationGricecameupwiththefollowingmaximsofconversation.TheCPbeingveryroughandgeneralformulation,tospecifytheCPfurther,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesmaximsasfollows:--MaximofQualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ExampleP53--MaximofQuantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired（forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange）.2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.ExampleP53MaximofRelation--Berelevant.Jane:Whatdateisyourbirthday?Kate:December12IfKatesaysI’mAmerican,Sheisgoingagainstthemaximofrelation--MaximofMannerBeperspicuous.•1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.•2.Avoidambiguity.•3.Bebrief.(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)•4.Beorderly.ExampleP54