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CognitiveLinguistics认知语言学Whatiscognitivelinguistics?1.DefinitionofCognitiveLinguistics2.Construal（识解）andConstrualOperations（识解操作）3.Categorization（范畴化）4.ImageSchemas（意象图式）5.Metaphor（隐喻）6.Metonymy（换喻/转喻）7.Blendingtheory（整合理论）1.ThedefinitionofcognitivelinguisticsCognitivelinguisticsisanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguagethatemergedinthe1970sasareactionagainstthedominantgenerativeparadigmwhichpursuesanautonomousviewoflanguage.----RuizdeMendoza1997)CognitiveLinguisticsisbasedonhumanexperienceoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.认知语言学是基于人类对世界的经验以及他们感知和概念化世界的方式2.Construal（识解）&ConstrualOperations（识解操作）Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetc.识解，一种在特异性，心理扫描，定向性，优势地位以及图形与背景的分离等多种不同的方式下理解和描绘相同的情景的能力。Construaloperationsareconceptualizingprocessesusedinlanguageprocessbyhumanbeings.Thatis,construaloperationsaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.识解操作是人类在语言处理过程中概念化的过程。或者说，识解操作是理解语言表达方式所使用的基本心理过程和心理来源。2.1Attention（注意力）/Salience（突显）TheoperationgroupedunderSALIENCEhavetodowithourdirectionofattentiontowardssomethingthatissalienttous.Ex.1.aHecleanedthewindow.bHeopenedthewindow.第一个例子将注意力放在窗户的玻璃上。第二个例子更强调窗子的框架。Ex.2.aIhavebrokenthewindow.bAstonehasbrokenthewindow.第个例子突显了我在事件中的角色，第二个例子突显的是石头的角色.2.2Judgment（判断）/Comparison（对比）Theconstrualoperationsofjudgment/comparisonhavetodowithjudgingsomethingbycomparingittosomethingelse.判断/对比识解操作与把一物比作另一物的判断相关.它是人类基本的认识能力,也是人类经验的基础.Thefigure-groundalignmentseemstoapplytospacewiththegroundastheprepositionalobjectandtheprepositionexpressingthespatialrelationalconfiguration.Italsoappliestoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Sincethemovingobjectistypicallythemostprominentone,becauseitismoving,itistypicallythefigure,whiletheremainingstimuliconstituenttheground.图形-背景关系似乎可以运用于空间研究，背景充当了介词宾语和表征空间关系的介词。它同样也适用于我们感知运动的物体。因为运动的物体是最具凸显性的。因为它是运动的，就构成了图形，而剩余的刺激构成了背景。Langacker用射体(trajector)表示运动的图形,用路标(landmark)表示在运动的背景.Ex.Thebook(图形)isonthetable(背景)Batman(图形)wasstandingontheroof(背景)We(射体)wentacrossthefield(路标)He(射体)isgoingtoLondon(路标)2.3Perspective(视角)/situatedness(方位)另一个认知语言学的识解操作就是视角。我们通过所处的位置来观察一个情景。视点取决于两个方面：一方面，它取决于观察者的位置与观察情境的关系。另一方面，它取决于情景的安排与观察者的位置关系。Ex.Mybikeisinfrontofthecar.我的自行车在汽车的前面。Mybikeisbehindthecar.我的自行车在汽车的后面。这些识解以我们实际上站在不同的角度去观察自行车和汽车为前提。3.Categorization（范畴化）Categorizationistheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.范畴化是基于人类经验的异同将我们的经验划分成不同的类型。•Therearethreelevelsincategories:thebasiclevel,thesuper-ordinatelevel,andthesubordinatelevel.3.1Basiclevel基本层次范畴Thecategoriesatthebasiclevelarethosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.Thisisthelevelwhereweperceivethemostdifferencesbetween“objects”intheworld.其特征体现在以下四个方面（克劳褔特和克鲁兹）：1由行为相互作用产生典型范式的最具包容性的层次。2构成清晰图像的最具包容性的层次。3代表部分-整体信息的最具包容性的层次。4为日常参考所提供的层次。3.2Superordinatelevel上位层次范畴Superordinatecategoriesarethemostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenoughfeaturesincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.其特征体现在以下四个方面(Croftandcruse)：1上位范畴没有基本层次范畴好，尽管它的成员可以区别于邻近的范畴，但是范畴内的相似性相对比较低。2上位范畴比基本层次范畴的定义特征是少。3基本层次范畴的中间层次上位范畴之间有单一的修饰关系。4从语言学的角度说，上位范畴的名词大多是物质名词，而基本层次范畴的名词是可数名词。3.3Subordinatelevel附属层次范畴Atthislevelweperceivethedifferencesbetweenthemembersofthebasiclevelcategories.OftenthenamesforSUBORDINATELEVELcategoriesaremorphologicallycomplex.Theyaretypicallycompositeforms.Onesuchexampleisthatofcompoundnouns.其特征体现在以下三个方面（克劳褔特和克鲁兹）：1附属范畴比基本范畴层次尽管它们的低，尽管它们的成员之间有很高的相似性，但于临近的范畴成员的区别性却很低。2它们的信息性相对比它们的中间层次上位范畴少。3它们是多词素性的，而最普遍的格式是修饰－中心语结构。4.Imageschemas意象图式MarkJohnson(1987)definesanimageschemasarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.约翰逊把意象图式定义为通过感知的相互作用和运动程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的循环出现的动态模式。Imageschematicstructureshavetwocharacteristics:1)theyarepre-conceptualschematicstructuresemergingfromourbodilyexperience;2)theyareconstantlyoperatinginourperceptualinteraction,bodilymovementthroughspace,andphysicalmanipulationofobjects.Thereareninetypesofschemas:1.Acenter-peripheryschemas(中心-边缘图示)Itinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore.Forexample:thestructureofanapple,anindividual’sperceptualsphere,anindividual’ssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothersattheoutside.2.Acontainmentschemas（容器图示）Itisanimageschemathatinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundary,enclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.Acontainmentschemahasadditionaloptionalproperties,suchastransitivityofenclosure,objectsinsideoroutsidetheboundary,protectionofanenclosedobject,therestrictionofforceinsidetheenclosure,andtherelativelyfixedpositionofanenclosedobject.3.Acycleschema(循环图示)Itinvolvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:astartingpoint,aprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktracking,areturntotheinitialstate.Forexamplesdays,weeks.4.Aforceschemas（力道图示）Itinv