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RatsandMenInsolubleProblemsProfessorN.R.F.MaieroftheUniversityofMichiganperformedaseriesofexperimentsseveralyearsagoinwhichneurosisisinducedinrats.Theratsarefirsttrainedtojumpofftheedgeofaplatformatoneoftwodoors.Iftheratjumpstotheright,thedoorholdsfast,anditbumpsitsnoseandfallsintoanet;ifitjumpstotheleft,thedooropens,andtheratfindsadishoffood.Whentheratsarewelltrainedtothisreaction,thesituationischanged.Thefoodisputbehindtheotherdoor,sothatinordertogettheirrewardtheynowhavetojumptotherightinsteadoftotheleft.(Otherchanges,suchasmarkingthetwodoorsindifferentways,mayalsobeintroducedbytheexperimenter.)Iftheratfailstofigureoutthenewsystem,sothateachtimeitjumpsitneverknowswhetheritisgoingtogetfoodorbumpitsnose,itfinallygivesupandrefusestojumpatall.Atthisstage,Dr.Maiersays,Manyratsprefertostarveratherthanmakeachoice.密执安大学的N.R.F.麦耶教授几年前做过一系列可以诱导鼠产生“神经官能症”的实验。首先训练鼠由平台边缘跳向两个门中的一个。如果鼠向右跳，右门是碰不开的，那么鼠就撞了鼻子并掉进网里；如果鼠向左跳，左门就打开，鼠就会找到一碟食物。在鼠已很熟悉这一反应时，就改变情况：把食物放在另外一扇门后，这样鼠要想得到犒赏就不能向左跳，而要向右跳了。(实验者也可采用其他变化形式，比如用不同的方式标记两个门。)如果鼠弄不懂新规则，它每次跳时决不知是会得到食物还是会撞鼻子。最终它就会放弃，拒绝再跳。到这一步，麦耶博士说：“许多鼠宁愿挨饿也不再做选择。”Next,theratsareforcedtomakeachoice,beingdriventoitbyblastsofairoranelectricshock.Animalswhichareinducedtorespondintheinsolubleproblemsituation,saysDr.Maier,settledowntoaspecificreaction(suchasjumpingsolelyatthelefthanddoor)whichtheycontinuetoexecuteregardlessofconsequences....Theresponsechosenundertheseconditionsbecomesfixated....Oncethefixationappears,theanimalisincapableoflearninganadaptiveresponseinthissituation.Whenareactiontotheleft-handdooristhusfixated,theright-handdoormaybeleftopensothatthefoodisplainlyvisible.Yettherat,whenpushed,continuestojumptotheleft,becomingmorepanickyeachtime.Whentheexperimenterpersistsinforcingtherattomakechoices,itmaygointoconvulsions,racingaroundwildly,injuringitsclaws,bumpingintochairsandtables,thengoingintoastateofviolenttrembling,untilitfallsintoacoma.Inthispassivestate,itrefusestoeat,refusestotakeanyinterestinanything:itcanberolledupintoaballorsuspendedintheairbyitslegs—therathasceasedtocarewhathappenstoit.Ithashadanervousbreakdown.第二步，对鼠施加强大气流或电击，赶它，强迫它做出选择。“处于不能解决的难题之中而被迫做出反应的动物，”麦耶博士说，“最后总是落到一个特定的反应上(比如只4向左跳)，不顾结果如何都总是做出这一反应……这种条件下所做出的反应便固定不变了……一旦出现了这种固态，动物就没有能力学会适应性的反应了。”一旦向左跳的反应被固定下来时，可以让右门开着，使食物呈现在眼前。可是鼠被驱赶时却仍旧向左跳，并且每次都愈来愈惶恐不安。实验者继续迫使鼠做出选择时，鼠开始惊厥不安，四下狂奔，弄伤爪子，撞上桌椅，然后浑身剧烈颤抖，直到昏迷不醒。处于这样的被动情况，鼠拒绝进食，对一切不感兴趣：可以把它卷成一团或擒住双腿倒挂空中——无论怎样摆布它，它都无动于衷。这时的鼠已是“神经崩溃”了。Itistheinsolubilityoftherat'sproblemthatleadstoitsnervousbreakdown,and,asDr.Maiershowsinhisstudiesofdisturbedchildrenandadults,ratsandhumanbeingsseemtogothroughprettymuchthesamestages.First,theyaretrainedtomakehabituallyagivenchoicewhenconfrontedbyagivenproblem;secondly,theygetaterribleshockwhentheyfindthattheconditionshavechangedandthatthechoicedoesn'tproducetheexpectedresults;third,whetherthroughshock,anxiety,orfrustration,theymayfixateontheoriginalchoiceandcontinuetomakethatchoiceregardlessofconsequences;fourth,theysullenlyrefusetoactatall;fifth,whenbyexternalcompulsiontheyareforcedtomakeachoice,theyagainmaketheonetheywereoriginallytrainedtomake-andagaingetabumponthenose;finally,evenwiththegoalvisibleinfrontofthem,tobeattainedsimplybymakingadifferentchoice,theygocrazyoutoffrustration.Theyteararoundwildly;theysulkincornersandrefusetoeat;bitter,cynical,disillusioned,theyceasetocarewhathappenstothem.鼠所面临问题的“不可解决性”导致了它的神经崩溃，而麦耶博士在他对心理失常的小孩和成人的研究报告中表明，鼠和人经历的各个阶段大同小异。首先是两者受训练，在面对某一问题时都习惯地做出某一选择；然后，发现条件已改变而原来的选择并不能产生预期的效果时，两者都大吃一惊；再次，不论是出于震惊、焦虑还是受挫，两者都会执著于最初的选择，不管结果，一意孤行；接着，悻悻然拒绝采取行动；而后，在被迫做出选择时，两者又总做出最初训练时所做出的选择——且再次碰壁；最后，即使目标就在眼前，只要做出不同的选择就唾手可得时，两者又都由于以前受到的挫折而发狂。他们疯狂地四处撕抓；或是躲在角落里赌气拒食；他们变得辛酸怀恨、不信任一切、心灰意冷，无论人们怎样对待他们，他们都无动于衷。Isthisanexaggeratedpicture?Ithardlyseemsso.Thepatternrecursthroughouthumanlife,fromthesmalltragediesofthehometotheworld-shakingtragediesamongnations.Inordertocureherhusband'sfaults,awifemaynaghim.Hisfaultsgetworse,soshenagshimsomemore.Naturallyhisfaultsgetworsestill-andshenagshimevenmore.Governed,liketherat,byafixatedreactiontotheproblemofherhusband'sfaults,shecanmeetitonlyinoneway.Thelongershecontinues,theworseitgets,untiltheyarebothnervouswrecks.这是否是一幅夸张的画面呢?似乎并非如此。这个模式反复再现于人生，小到家庭的悲剧，大到震撼世界的国家间的悲剧。为了纠正丈夫的毛病，妻子数落他。毛病越坏，就越多地挨数落。当然他的毛病变得更坏，她就更加数落。像鼠一样，妻子对丈夫的毛病受一种固定反应的摆布，她只能总以一种方式应付它。她这么做的日子越久，丈夫的毛病就越厉害，直至夫妇二人在神经上都备受折磨，疲惫不堪。Again,whitepeopleinanortherncity,deploringtheilliteracyandhighcrimerateamongNegroes,segregatethem,persecutethem(itiswellknownthatthepolicearealmostalwaystougheronNegrosuspectsthanonwhites),anddenythemopportunitiesforemploymentandadvancement.Thedenialofopportunityperpetuatestheilliteracyandthehighcrimerate,whichinturnperpetuatethesegregation,persecution,anddenialofopportunity.Thesearchforawaytobreakupthisviciouscircletaxesthebestmindsamongthoseinterestedinorderlysocialchange:citycouncilmen,educators,urbanplanners,Negroorganizations,aswellasstategovernmentsandfederalauthorities.再看一个例子。北方某城市的白人因厌恶黑人高文盲率和高犯罪率的状况而隔离他们、迫害他们(众所周知，警察通常对黑人嫌疑犯比对白人嫌疑犯要粗暴得多)，并且拒绝给他们受雇与提升的机会。这种机会的被剥夺使文盲率与犯罪率高的情况得以延续下去，转而又使隔离、迫害和不给黑人机会的做法得以继续存在。要