Chapter-4--Syntax

Chapter4SyntaxIntroductiontoSyntaxWhatisGrammar?Thepartofthestudyoflanguagewhichdealswiththeformsandstructureofwords(morphology),withtheircustomaryarrangementinphrasesandsentences(syntax),andnowoftenwithlanguagesounds(phonology):usuallydistinguishedfromthestudyofwordmeaning(semantics)Thesystemofwordstructuresandwordarrangementsofagivenlanguageatagiventime.Abodyofrulesforspeakingandwritingagivenlanguage.GrammarHowdoweknowthatonesentenceisgrammaticalandtheotherisnot?AmylikesStanThinklikesIStanthatAmyCannotbethatwehavelearnedeachinstanceindividually.Sentencesareinfinite;brainisnot.EnterRulesButwhatarerules,andhowaretheyrepresentedinthebrain?QuestionsAboutRulesHowdowecometohavesuchknowledge?Inwhatformissuchknowledgerepresentedinthemind?Howcanchildrenlearngrammar?InterestingFactsAboutLanguageThenumberofsentencesisinfinite.Weareabletodistinguishgrammaticalfromungrammaticalsentences.Weareabletorecognizetruncatedsentences(“Stopit”)thataremissingnouns.Weareabletorecognizeambiguoussentences(“Andrewsawthegirlwithbinoculars”)Wecancreatesentencesthatparaphraseeachother.SemanticsFollowsSyntax“Thepeopletalkedoverthenoise”TwoSyntacticalInterpretations1.[Thepeople][talked[over]thenoise]]]-Overisapreposition2.[Thepeople[talkedover][thenoise]–OverisaparticleIntroductiontoSyntaxWhatisSyntax?SYNTAX,derivedfromGreek,ismadeupoftwomorphemes/syn/(together)and/tax/(arrangement).Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofthesentences.句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支。IntroductiontoSyntaxInlinguistics,thewordSYNTAXreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.SincesentenceisusuallyregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofaLanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecenterofgrammaticalstudy.句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系。IntroductiontoSyntaxDifferentlinguistictheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructure.Therearesometheoriesaboutsyntax.Fourrepresentativeapproachestosyntax:TheTraditionalApproachTheStructuralApproachtoSyntaxGenerativeApproach/TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)TheFunctionalApproachTheTraditionalApproachTraditionally,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformation,therefore,involvesagreatdealofthestudyoftheword,suchas,theclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermsofsubject,predicate,etc.Thesepartsofspeechandfunctionsaresometimescalledcategories.Syntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrenceSyntacticrelations（句法关系）RelationsofPosition（位置关系）Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObjectPositionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacherWordorder词序Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.Wordorderisoneofthebasicwaystoclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.BasicSentenceTypes:QuirkSVCMaryiskind.anurse.SVAMaryishere.inthehouse.SVThechildislaughing.SVOSomebodycaughttheball.SVOCWehaveprovedhimwrong.afool.SVOAIputtheplateonthetable.SVOOShegivesmeexpensivepresents.RelationofSubstitutability（替换关系）TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The______smiles.manboygirlItalsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongmanThetallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.RelationofCo-occurrence（同现关系）Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclassesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.Sentence:TheTraditionalApproachsimpleSentencecomplexnon-simplecompoundTypesofSentencesSimplesentence:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”,“by”,“or”…Complexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclause子句matrixclause主句①subordinator②functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybecompleteCompound-complexsentence:Basicsentencetypes:BolingerMotherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula（系词）+complement)MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+trans