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1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers一.DiscourseAnalysis语篇分析Whatisdiscourse?•Discourseis:•(structural)aunitoflanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.•acontinuousstretchofspokenlanguagelargerthanasentence,oftenconstitutingacoherentunit•.•(functional)alanguageinuse.•astretchoflanguageperceivedtobemeaningfulunified,andpurposive.一般来说，可以从形式/结构（formal/structural）角度来给“语篇”下定义,，也可以从功能呢的（functional）角度下定义。从结构方面看，“语篇”是大于句子的语言单位。从语言学的角度看，词素小于词，词小于词组或短语，短语或词组小于分句或小句，分句或小句小于句子，句子小于语篇。从功能的角度看，“语篇”是使用中的语言。Whatisdiscourseanalysis?•Discourseanalysisalsocalled:Discourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysis.•Thestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.•语篇分析研究的是交际中的语言，它涉及的是语言与它的使用情景（即语境）之间的关系。语言的表达形式既可以是口头的（spoken），也可以是书面的（written）。具体地说，交际中与语言使用有关的问题的都属于语篇分析的内容。TopicsofDiscourseAnalysis:1).Informationstructure(信息结构)2).Cohesion(衔接)3).Coherence(连贯)4).Discoursemakers(话语标记语)5).Conversationalanalysis(会话分析)1).Informationstructure(信息结构)•Howdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?•Givenandnewinformation•Topicandcomment•ContrastGivenandnewinformation•Giveninformation:knowntotheaddressee•Newinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.Topicandcomment•Topic话题:whattheutteranceisabout.•Comment述题:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Contrast•Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.CohesionandCoherence•atextoradiscourseisnotjustaconcatenationofclauses,itformsaunified,coherentwhole。•Cohesion衔接•thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse.•Fivecohesivedevices：Reference，Substitution，•Ellipsis，Conjunction，LexicalcohesionReference参照，指称therelationshipbetweenawordandwhatitpointstointherealworld.Inourdiscussionofcohesion,thatsortofreferenceiscalled“presentedreference”给出的指称(i.e.itintroducessthnewtothetext),asdistinctfrom“presumedreference”假定指称(i.e.mentionedinsuchawaythatweneedtoretrievetheiridentityfromsomewhereelseinthetext).•Thecommonestpresumedreferenceitemsare:•Thedefinitearticlethe;•Demonstrativepronounsthis,that,these,those;•Pronounshe,she,they,it,etc.••e.g.Thereisahouseneartheriver.ThatisJohn’s.Substitution替代•thereplacementofoneitemwithanother.Itisoftenusedtoavoidrepetition.arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions,andtheyhavesamefunction.A:I’velostmydictionary.(substituted)B:Getanewone.(substitute)Ellipsis省略Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofemphasisorstyle,andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse.Johnboughtsomechocolates,andJoansomebiscuits.A:AreyouwatchingTV?B:Yes,Iam.Conjunction连词•Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction.–Iwasnotinvited.Otherwise,Iwouldhavebeenthere.•coordinator并列连词(and,but…)•subordinator从属连词(because,when)•conjunctiveadverbs连接副词(however,indeed…)Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接Reiteration词项重现repetitionoflexicalitems.Areiterateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuper-ordinate,orageneralword.通过同一词项的复现、词项间的同义及近义关系(synonymy)或上下义关系(hyponymy)来实现衔接功能Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(synonym)Collocation词项同现thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.通过“经常共同出现的词项间的联系”来实现衔接功能Morethan2000patientsaredyingannuallywhilewaitingfortransplants……theshortageoforgansissoacute.(每年有2000多个等待器官移植的病人濒于死亡,……(人体)器官的短缺非常严重。)英语中transplant与organ具有限定和被限定的组合搭配的语义关系:organtransplant。英文就凭这种关系可将前后句有力的衔接起来。而汉译一开始只出现个“移植”,便会使读者茫然,所以应作“器官移植”,即由语义搭配关系的同现变成了“器官”这个词汇直接重复,从而保证译文的明确的连贯性•therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.•Itconcernspeople’sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.•1.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.•2.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.•Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.•Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.Coherence连贯Discoursemarkers话语标记语•expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.•conversationalparticles:wellandoh•parentheticallexicalizedclauses:y’know,Imeanandyousee,•connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreoverThemainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeaker’sinterpretationsoftheutterances.二.ConversationAnalysisIntroduction1)Conversationanalysis,orCA,isanapproachtothestudyoftalkininteraction(互动谈话)whichgrewoutoftheethnomethodologicaltraditioninsociologydevelopedbyHaroldGarfinkel.2)ThepurposeofCA:tostudythesequentialstructureofnaturalconversation,todiscoverhowthestructureandresourcesofnaturalconversationreflectspeakers’socialknowledgeandsocialidentity.3)ThecentralfocusinCAistheorganizationofthemeaningfulconductofpeopleins