传媒内部控制研究InternalControls•新闻选择的把关人(geetkeeper)理论一、卢因的把关概念1、1947年,卢因去丗前不久,在《群体生活的渠道》一文中首次提到“把关”(gatekeeping)2、把关:指传播者对信息进行筛选与过滤的行为3、把关人:对信息进行筛选和过滤的人即把关人施拉姆:在信息网络中到处都设有把关人例如:记者决定报道哪些事实;编辑决定发布哪些新闻;作家决定反映哪些典型人物、事件、人生观;图书管理员决定买什么书籍;教师决定采用什么样的教科书;餐桌旁的丈夫决定当天办公室发生的新闻,哪些应该告诉妻子;负责汇报的官员决定哪些情况向上级汇报怀特的把关研究1、怀特通过输入信息与输出信息的对比,考察在一个具体的把关环节上,信息是怎样被过滤被筛选的。输入信息—输出信息=把关过滤信息输入信息门区输出信息2、怀特记录一位编辑一周收到的全部稿件及用稿情况:收到来稿11910条,用稿件1297条,大约90%被把关,只有10%左右被选用NNN1N2N3N4N1’N4’N2’N3’M门受众怀特把关模式怀特把关模式的缺陷•该模式只是对新闻信息取舍过程的一种简单概括,它指出了经过大众传媒这道关口,某些信息得到入选,某些新闻遭到舍弃这一事实,但并没说明哪些新闻会得到入选,哪些新闻会遭到舍弃,而这个问题才涉及把关过程的实质。•将把关人当作一个孤立的因素来考察,过分强调把关人的独立权限,忽略了社会因素对把关人的制约。ERS1S2S3S4S5S6C1C2C3C4C5C6各种事件新闻受众C:把关人S:新闻麦克内利(McNelly)的把关链模式麦克内利的把关链模式评述•该模式显示了各项国际新闻在由新闻源传向受众的过程中是如何通过多个个体“把关人”的。•优点:1、整个信息流通过程中存在着一条有许多关口组成的把关链;2、表现了新闻是如何进入下一关口的,它既可能代替已经存在的新闻项,也可能与它们并为一体。•缺点:把每个把关人及其作用都等同了,不分主次新闻事件新闻采集者新闻稿件新闻加工者新闻成品第一阶段第二阶段比如:作者记者当地编辑比如:编辑改稿人员翻译巴斯(Bass)的“双重行动模式”对巴斯把关模式的评述•巴斯虽然着眼于个体“把关人”,但他认为,只有在新闻组织机构内的个体活动才有意义。•他提出新闻“把关人”的“把关”功能不尽相同。•巴斯将个体“把关人”的研究从怀特对单个新闻加工者的研究拓宽为对明显分为两类的多重“把关人”的研究。影响传播者把关的因素•政治法律因素:社会政治制度决定传播制度•经济因素:经济控制远比政府的控制影响大•社会文化因素:社会价值体系和文化开放程度。J.鲁尔《中国打开了电视》•信息自身的因素:信息价值•组织自身的因素:要求、规范、传统•受众因素:社会需要、受众结构•技术因素:条件•传播者个人因素:世界观、个性、水平“把关”过程的实质•大众传媒的新闻或信息生产与传播并不具有纯粹的“客观中立性”,而是依据传媒的一定立场、方针和价值标准所进行的一种有目的的取舍选择加工活动;•新闻和信息的选择受到媒介经营目标、受众需求以及社会文化等多种因素的制约,但与媒介方针和利益一致的内容更容易优先入选;•传媒的把关是一个多环节、有组织的过程,其中虽也有编辑、记者个人的活动,但在媒介内部控制机制的作用下,个人因素所起的作用是有限的。“把关”过程及其结果,在总体上是传媒组织的立场和方针的体现。FCC:RegulatingBroadcastingBecausewethepublicowntheairwaves,ourgovernmentactsonourbehalftodecidewhogetsalicensetobroadcastovercertainfrequencies,andwhetherornot,afteratime,theycanrenewthatlicense.Thegoverningbody,theFCC,doesn’tmakelawsbutratherinterpretsthem,andoneofitsbiggestjobsistocontinuallyinterprettheconceptof“operatingwithinthepublicinterest”inboththetechnicalandoverallprogrammingareas.In1960theFCCintroducedtheideaoflocalism,whichsaidprogramswithlocaltalent,aimedatlocalself-expression,arenecessaryelementsinservingthepublicinterest.FCCRegulatoryPowersIfaradioorTVstationviolatesFCCregulations,theagencyhasseveralwaystohelpenforcetherules:•fineastationupto$250,000•putalicenserenewalonprobation,usuallyayear•revokeorfailtorenewalicenseRegulatingCableTV•CableTVhashadahistoryofon-again,off-againregulations,butthelatestregulationsaroseduetowidespreadconsumercomplaintsagainstrisingfeesandpoorservice;inresponse,CongresspassedtheCableTVActof1992,whichre-instatedtheFCC’spowertoregulatecablefeesandservices,ofwhichthereweretwoimportantconsequences:•Mostconsumerssawtheirmonthlycableratesgodown.•TheSupremeCourtheldCongresscouldpasslawswhichguaranteedafreeflowofinformationcouldn’tberestrictedbyaprivatefirmthatcontrolledthemeansoftransmission1996TELECOMMUNICATIONSACTFirstmajoroverhaulofcommunicationlawsin60years,anditaffectedeveryindustryregulatedbytheFCC.Keyprovisions:•nolimitonthenumberofstationsthatcanbeownedbyonecompany,exceptthattheycouldn’townmorethaneightstationswithinonemarket•nolimitonnumberofTVstationsthatcanbeownedaslongastheydon’treachmorethan35%ofnation’sTVhomes•extendedthetermofbroadcastlicensestoeightyears1996TELECOMMUNICATIONSACT•allowedphonecompaniestoentercablefield,viceversa•deregulatedtheratesofmanycablesystems•mandatednewTVsetsbeabletoblockprogramswithstrongsexualorviolentcontent(theso-calledV-Chip)•orderedTVindustrytocomeupwithavoluntarysystemtorateprogramswithviolent,sexual,orindecentcontentTheoriesofthePressAuthoritarianTheoryTherulingeliteshouldguidethemasses.Truth(read“power”)flowsfromthetopdown;itwasasystemfoundedontheprinciplesofDivineRightandfosteredapaternalisticattitudetowardthemasses.LibertarianTheoryDirectlyoppositeauthoritarianbeliefs,thissystemassumespeopleareintelligentcreatureswhoareperfectlycapableofmakinguptheirownmindsabouttheiraffairsgivenaccurateandcompleteaccountsofthenews.Governmentexiststoservetheindividual,anditservesbestwhenitservesleast.TheoriesofthePressSocialResponsibilityTheorycontendsthepresshasarighttocriticizegovernment,butalsohasaresponsibilitytopreservedemocracybyproperlyinformingthepublicandbyrespondingtosociety’sneedsandinterests.TheCommunistTheorysaysthemediaareownedbythepeopleandoperatedthroughthestate,thepurposebeingtosupporttheMarxistsystemandtheCommunistparty.TheDevelopmentalTheoryholdsgovernmentcanmobilizethemediatoservenationalgoalsintimesofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentneeds,suchasraisingliteracylevels,politicalintegration,economicself-sufficiency,andtheeradicationofdisease.MediaControlandOwnershipTypeATypeBPUBLICRadio/TVinWestern|CommunistcountriesEuropeancountries|Radio/TVinmany|developingcountriesOwnership_________________________________________TypeC|TypeD|WesternEuropepress|PressinseveralLatinPRIVATEmediainU.S.A.|AmericancountriesprivateEuropeanradio/TVDECENTRALIZEDCENTRALIZEDControlExamplesOfForeignMediaSystems•Themediasystemsinthenextthreeexamplecountriesshowthevaryinginfluencesthateconomics,culture,geography,andpoliticshaveonthedevelopmentofmassmedia.Becauseoftheseandotherfactors,eachnationwillcreateamediasystemthatisbestsuitedtoitsownparticularneeds.•Japanasocial